FLOWERING TREES: VOL.12. HORTICULTURE SCIENCE SERIES - Volume 12
authored by: P.K. Valsalakumari
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"Nature has gifted man with trees for his sustainable livelihood. Trees are an integral part of any landscape. Apart from beautifying our surroundings, trees are used functionally to improve the quality of environment particularly in urban areas, where the environment is degrading at a faster rate. The significance of growing trees is widely understood in recent days. The book on 'Flowering Trees' begins with describing India's heritage in growing trees, the spiritual and religious significance of trees and role of trees in indigenous landscaping and sacred groves, where their main function is conservation of biodiversity. The functional values of trees in modern landscaping such as to reduce glare, climate modification, pollution control, their ecological value and various uses for aesthetic purposes are dealt with in detail in this book. Avenue planting is also described in detail. Principles and designs for planting trees, methods of planting, cultural practices, pruning, problems in tree growing and various methods to overcome them are also described. The psychological effects of plants on human beings and the astrological significance of trees are discussed in this book. The book includes detailed descriptions of ornamental, economic and medicinal trees. Separate s on trees for Bonsai and renewable energy are also included in this book."
Prof. K V. Peter, basically a horticulturist, a plant breeder and a University teacher is an acknowledged research manager. As Vegetable Breeder, he developed bacterial wilt resistant varieties in tomato, eggplant and chilli. The variety Pant C1 which he developed along with late Dr. P.J.Mathai is resistant to viral leaf curl and thrips. He authored the bulletin “Statistics and computer programmes in biometric research” published by G.B.Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar in 1976. Prof. Peter established a spices biotechnology facility at Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut and nurtured an active team of scientists who worked out the protocols for rapid multiplication of 32 spices including black pepper and cardamom. In vitro conservation of spices germplasm consisting 36 species and 315 accessions are now accomplished, along with know-how for minimal growth methods. Prof. Peter provided effective managerial support to the Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicut to possess the world’s largest collection of black pepper and cardamom germplasm. The high production technologies developed by the team of scientists led by Prof. Peter could push up cardamom productivity from 70 Kg/ha in 1992-93 to 149 Kg/ha in 1997-98. Black pepper productivity also shot up from 268 Kg/ha during 1992-93 to 311 Kg/ha in 1995-96. The technology package for protected cultivation of bush black pepper would make available green pepper throughout the year. Prof. Peter edited 10 books and is author or co-author of 13 books/bulletins and 124 research papers. Prof. Peter edited 3 volumes of ‘Handbook of Herbs and Spices’ published by Woodhead Publishing Company,UK and CRC,USA. Ha co-authored the ‘Handbook of Industrial Crops’ published by Haworth Press, USA. The National Book Trust of India published the book Plantation Crops authored by him. He was Director of Research, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara providing research guidance and support to over 724 scientists. He is a Fellow of National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi and Fellow of National Academy of Sciences, Allahabad. He was awarded the “Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Award” by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. The National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi conferred ‘Recognition Award 2000’. The University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore bestowed ‘M. H. Marigowda Award’ to him for outstanding contributions in Horticultural Sciences. He is the recipient of Silver Jubilee Medal for outstanding contributions in vegetable research, instituted by the Indian Society of Vegetable Science, Varanasi, UP. During 1991-2000, he got the then National Research Centre of Spices elevated into Indian Institute of Spices Research. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi conferred The Best Institute Award on IISR for its research contributions to spices.Scientists of IISR were encouraged to receive national recognitions like Jawaharlal Nehru Award, Hari Om Trust Award, Best Team Research Award etc. during the period (1991-1998) Dr. Peter was Chairman, QRT, Indian Institute of Vegetable Research,Varanasi and All India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Project (1998-2003), Member Secretary, QRT, Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum (1983-1988), Member, Standing Committee,Association of Indian Universities, New Delhi (2004-2005) and Member, Spices Board of India (1991-1998). He was Member, Governing Board, ICAR (2002-2005) and Member, Board of Management IARI, New Delhi (2003-2006). Prof. Peter is now Member, Task Force (Plant Biotechnology) DBT, UGC-DBT Human Resource Development, DST Task force on Women in Science and Chairman, RAC, National Research Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Anand.
Born on 17th May, 1948 in the Island village of Kumbalangi, he had secondary school education at St. Peters High School, Kumbalangi, pre-degree at Maharajas College, Ernakulam, B. Sc. (Ag) at Agricultural College and Research Institute, Vellayani and Mastoral and Doctoral degrees at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar and post doctoral training at USDA, BARC-W, Maryland. He attended scientists meet at Bangladesh, Taiwan, Goudeloupe (FWI) and USA. He is co-ordinator of two network projects on plant biotechnology, funded by Department of Biotechnology, Government of India.The Research Team led by him received the National Award For Processing and Product Development given by The Department Of Biotechnology.Under his Vice Chancellorship at Kerala Agricultural University, the University received 1st prize during 2001-2002, 2002-2003 and 2003-2004 and 3rd prize during 2004-2005 in academic performance on all India basis from ICAR, New Delhi. The ICAR New Delhi conferred. The Sardar Patel Award for the Best ICAR Institution 2003 to Kerala Agricultural University for allround performance. Four New Krishi Vigyan Kendras were established to serve farming community in 4 districts of Kerala.Dr Peter is Vice-Chancellor, Kerala Agricultural University since June, 2001.He guided several students for M.Sc and Ph.D programmes in the Universities of Calicut, Kerala Agricultural University and GBPUAT, Pantnagar.
Dr. Peter is the S/o Late Kuruppacharil Devasi Varkey, Kumbalangi. His wife is Mrs. Vimala Peter. He has two sons Mr. Anvar K. Peter, MCA and
Mr. Ajay K. Peter, B. Tech. MBA student.
Dr.(Mrs.) P.K. Valsalakumari, Ph.D obtained her B.Sc.(Hort), M.Sc (Hort) and Ph.D from Kerala Agricultural University with distinction. She joined as Junior Instructor in the same University in 1977. At present she is holding charge of the Head of the Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University. She has been associated with active research, teaching, and extension activities in fruits, flowers and landscaping. She has handled several courses in the areas of ornamental gardening, landscape horticulture and floriculture for the undergraduate and post graduate students. She has guided 10 students for their M.Sc and 2 students, for Ph.D. She has been associated with landscaping of the campus and consultancy services to public and private institutions in landscaping and floriculture.
Dr. Valsalakumari has 120 research papers to her credit including those presented in national and international conferences and seminars and 21 books/ chapters in books as editor, author or co-author and a number of training manuals and popular articles. She has implemented 8 externally funded research projects by ICAR, NHB, DBT and BARC and is the Co-Principal Investigator of several projects. She has played a major role in the organization of a National Seminar and the National symposium of the Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture in Floriculture at the Kerala Agricultural University and a winter school on “Flori Business in the changing Global scenario: Issues and strategies” sponsored by the ICAR.
Dr. Valsalakumari has organized a number of training programmes in tree planting, ornamental gardening, nursery management, floriculture and cultivation of anthurium for the benefit of the officials of the Department of Agriculture and farmers. She has also established commercial nurseries and demonstration plots of anthurium and other flower crops in the University and in farmers’ field for the transfer of technology.
Dr. Valsalakumari is the life member of Scientific societies like Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture and is the referee of National journals. She is the associate Project Co-ordinator (Floriculture) and member of the Board of Studies of Kerala Agricultural University. She has served as external examiner of several universities. She has visited Thailand, Singapore and Malayasia to attend International Conferences and Shows. She served as judge in the International orchid show conducted in Malaysia in July,2007.
Dr. P.K. Rajeevan obtained his B.Sc. (Ag) and Ph.D. from Kerala Agricultural University and M.Sc. (Ag) in Horticulture from Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University. He joined the Kerala Agricultural University in 1978 as Assistant Professor and is presently serving as the Associate Dean, College of Horticulture and as Floriculturist of AICRP on Floriculture (Vellanikkara Centre). He has guided 8 M.Sc. and 3 Ph.D. students in Floriculture.
Dr. Rajeevan has been actively associated with research works on fruits and flowers. For the last 20 years he has been working on orchids, anthuriums, foliage plants and other tropical ornamentals and has made significant contributions in the areas of mass propagation, standardization of agro techniques, standardization of post harvest technology etc. He has operated various research and development projects funded by ICAR, DST and NHB. He has prepared projects for development of floriculture for the Government of Kerala and landscape projects for several Governmental organizations, including that for the international airport, Kochi.
He has visited Kenya, Saudi Arabia, Dubai, Mauritius, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Sri Lanka on various assignments like representing India in International Orchid shows, offering consultancy service in floriculture, serving as a member of a committee constituted by the Government of Kerala supported by APEDA in Floriculture market exploration studies etc. He has participated in several national and international seminars and has also served as resource person in training programmes organized in various parts of the country including Lakshadweep and the Andamans. He is also acting as consultant for floriculture development for the Government of Goa. He has organized national symposium of the Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture and a National seminar on Floricutlure (Flori 2020) at the Kerala Agricultural University. He has also conducted over 100 training programmes in floriculture and allied areas for the benefit of farmers and agricultural officers.
Dr. Rajeevan has served as member of the General Council (Senate) of Kerala Agricultural University, Joint Secretary of Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture, External member of the Board of Studies in TNAU, Member QRT of NRC, Orchids and Councillor of The Orchid Society of India. He is now serving as Project Co-ordinator (Floriculture) of Kerala Agricultural University and Vice President of Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture. He has published 141 research papers, 28 books/ chapters in books and 42 popular articles. He has also done TV and radio programmes on various aspects of floriculture and landscaping. He was awarded HSI Gold Medal for his contribution and leadership in Floriculture for the year 2005.
Dr. (Mrs.) P.K. Sudhadevi completed her Post graduation and doctorate degrees in Horticulture from Kerala Agricultural University with brilliant academic records. She has vast experience of 25 years in teaching, research and extension activities in Horticulture. She handled three externally aided projects as Principal Investigator and was associated with the implementation of three other schemes. She handled several projects on plantation crops, spices, medicinal, aromatic and fruit crops as Principal Investigator in KAU. Dr. Sudhadevi, is the Scientist who released the first pineapple hybrid in India ‘Amritha’ in association with other Scientists of KAU for which she was honoured by the Hon. Minister for Agriculture of the state. She attended several national and international seminars and presented papers. She has published over 55 research papers in national and international journals and symposia and chapters in 6 books and several popular articles. She also has 6 books published on her credit on different aspects of Horticulture.
Dr. Sudhadevi is life member of one International Scientific Society and several reputed bodies in India. She is presently working as Professor in the Department of Pomology and Floriculture of College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University.
Dr. (Mrs.) C.K. Geetha completed her B.Sc and M.Sc degree and Ph.D. in Horticulture with First Rank, from the Kerala Agricultural University. She has vast experience of about 25 years of teaching, research and extension in Horticulture. She has been teaching undergraduate and post graduate students since 1986 and guided few Ph.D and M.Sc students. She has handled two externally aided schemes as Principal Investigator and 10 scheme as Co-investigator/ Associate, funded by various reputed bodies/ institutions. Dr. C.K. Geetha has published over hundred research papers in national and international journals and symposia, eight books, chapters in two books and several popular articles. She received the Certificate of Appreciation from the Vice Chancellor, KAU for operating the External Aided Projects in the University Dr. C.K. Geetha is life member of some reputed Indian Scientific Societies in the field of Horticulture and member in the Board of UG and PG Examinations in some of the reputed Agricultural Universities in India. She participated as a judge in the 7th Ipoh International Orchid Festival 2007 held at Perak, Malaysia. Presently she is working as Professor, Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University.
Dedication
Foreword to the series — Prof. M.S. Swaminathan
Foreword to the volume — Manmohan Attawar
Preface
Chapter-1
India’s Heritage of Ornamental Trees
Trees in Hindu epics and ancient Sanskrit literature
Vrikshayurveda - The ancient science of plant life
Vrikshayurveda in contemporary times
Trees in the Mughal period
Trees in the British period
Chapter-2
Spiritual and Religious Significance of Trees
Religious importance of trees
Auspicious and inauspicious trees
Spiritual significance of trees and flowers
Psychic power of plants and flowers
The message of trees and their flowers
Chapter-3
Trees in Indigenous Landscaping
- Historical Background
Trees in ‘sacred groves’ of homesteads
Biodiversity of flowering trees in the Western Ghats
Indigenous trees of Western Ghats
Chapter-4
Functional and Aesthetic Values of Trees
Functional values of trees
Visual control
Glare and reflection control
Screening for privacy
Screening objectionable views
Enframent
Physical barriers
Climate modification
Solar radiation and temperature control
Wind protection and air movement
Control of precipitation and humidity
Ecological value
Aesthetic value
Specimen or accent plant
Line planting
Group planting
Mass planting
Trees to attract butterflies and birds
Bee keeping
Uses of pollen today
Pollen as medicine and as food
In cosmetics
For pollution monitoring
Beebread
Selection of trees
Criteria for selection
Design principles in tree planting
Simplicity
Balance
Proportion
Focalization
Rhythm and line
Chapter-5
Avenue Planting
Designs of planting
Random planting
Formal planting (Line planting)
Informal planting
Colour scheme for avenues
Naming roads after trees
Avenue of honour
Planting along railway lines
Palms and Cycads for avenue planting
Description of palms
Chapter-6
Treescapes - An Ecofriendly Approach
Psychological effect of plants
Pollution control
Atmospheric gases
Dust and smoke
Noise
Lead
Pollution indicator trees
Bioallergen trees
Legumes in landscaping
Trees for various urban locations
Planting trees in villages
Bioaesthetic planning
Chandigarh experience
Urban green area management
General management techniques for urban trees
Recommendation for ecofriendly plantations
Trees for various urban locations
Chapter-7
Planting, Care and Management of
Ornamental Trees
Selection of site
Nursery tree selection
Installing trees
Preparation of planting site
Proper installation
Staking and guy-wiring
Watering
Fertilizing landscape trees
Factors affecting fertilizer uptake
Pruning ornamental trees
Parts of a tree
Reasons to prune
Time of pruning
Tools for pruning
Basic procedures in pruning
Procedures for pruning trees
Newly transplanting trees
Transplanting
Tree problems
Bulldozer blight
Grade change
Drought
Excessive moisture or poor drainage
Tree surrounded by pavements or buildings
Girdling of roots
Lightning damage
Septic tank injury
Spray injury
Herbicide or weedicide injury
Air pollution damage
Other causes for sick trees
Chapter-8
Description of Trees for Landscaping
Ornamental trees
Economic trees
Medicinal trees
Coniferous tree
Palms
Broad leaved trees
Chapter-9
Trees for Bonsai
The art of bonsai
Containers for bonsai
Nutrition of bonsai
Repotting bonsai
Watering bonsai
Wiring bonsai
Bonsai styles
Trees suitable for bonsai
Chapter-10
Trees for Renewable Energy
Biomass as a source of renewable energy
Biomass and the environment
Biomass energy and global warming
Biomass power and Bio-fuels for rural
employment and prosperity
Energy crops-sustainable renewable energy source
Multipurpose trees in integrated farming systems
High-tech trees
Functional classification of energy crops
Vegetable oils
Non-edible oils
Liquid wax
Hydrocarbon plants
Petroleum plants
Description of energy crops
Chapter-11
Trees in Astrology
Bibliography
Colour Plates
Index
Preface Landscaping is the art and science of achieving a total visual effect in an area to give it a sense of wholeness in the background of topography, buildings and the surrounding environment. The objective of modern landscaping is not merely to beautify the environment. It emphasizes the functional use of plants so as to modify the microclimate of men’s habitat and the area surrounding it and ultimately to produce a landscape that would be self sustaining following the principle of ‘energy saved is energy gained’. The term ‘Environscaping’ is of much relevance in the present context. Trees form the back bone of any landscape. Apart from the aesthetic value provided by their flowers and foliage, trees are looked upon for their functional values as well. Climate control is the most important function of trees in the landscape which they provide naturally. Trees reduce temperature around the area inhabited by them by absorbing solar radiation. Trees help to moderate the heat island, a condition formed due to significant increase in temperature. In industrial areas trees serve as effective tools for pollution control. For every ton of new wood that grows in a tree, 1.8 tons of carbon dioxide is removed from the air and 1.3 tons of oxygen is produced. Air pollution control is the most important way that trees improve the environment. On an average, trees remove roughly one-half the total weight of air pollutants. Trees also reduce noise pollution from all sources. Trees and their associated ground cover near water streams, rivers and lakes serve as a sponge, reducing the flow of pollutants such as agricultural chemicals before they reach the fresh water. Trees can cut energy costs by reducing the temperature in and around buildings and reduce air-conditioning costs. In this way, trees indirectly reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Trees and other vegetation protect the soil from erosion. Tree canopy reduces the force of the falling rain, thus preventing the direct impact of rain drops on soil.
Trees rise towards the sky, beautiful symbol of Nature’s aspiration for light. Sri Aurobindo writes “When the sun sets and all become silent, sit down under a tree for a moment and put yourself into communication with Nature: you will feel rising from the earth, from below roots of the trees and mounting upwards and coursing through their fibres upto the highest outstretching branches, the aspiration of an intense love and longing, - a longing for something that brings light and gives happiness. There is a yearning so pure and intense that if you can feel the movement in the trees, your own being too will go up in an ardent prayer for the peace and light and love that are unmanifested here”.
The cultural history of India is associated with religious believes and any emphasis on arguments dealing with plant-man-God relationship appeals to people even today. This attitude prevails throughout India and many places of worship have continued to preserve in situ biodiversity of specific species of plants.
The early inhabitants of our country were very conscious of the placement of their dwellings in beautiful surroundings. The best examples are from the West Coast, where the houses were traditionally constructed in the midst of gardens. The Arab traveller and historian, Ibn Batuta, in his itinerary in coastal Malabar recorded their picturesque beauty, as early as in the 10th century AD. The whole compound was planted with trees, which were useful and aesthetic in appeal. The scholarly elite used trees and shrubs mentioned in Kalidasa’s work in their planting schemes. Through the tree and foliage, a path is formed to the main village.
Trees alone on the earth give happiness both here and hereafter. Since they “save” from abject poverty they are named “taravah” (the saviors). Therefore, the trees should be carefully nurtured as through their shade, flowers and fruits they help immensely in the pursuit of dharma, artha, and kama (Vrikshayurveda).
What is the use of several trees grown in the forest? A single tree by the way side is far better where under people can rest (Vrikshayurveda). The towns and villages are made more healthy, more beautiful and more efficient by well planned streets with avenue planting. There is no doubt that, an impressive avenue gives any property the special distinction that it desires. In the past, Emperor Ashoka and Mughal rulers paid attention to roadside planting. Avenue trees primarily provide shade and act as windbreaks, weather conditioners-by purifying and humidifying the air, check radiation of heat and obstruct glare, limit noise and enhance the beauty of the street where they are planted. Roadside planting has two aspects; beauty and utility and both these aspects should be combined. This requires a thorough knowledge of plant material and imagination in planning.
What is the use of several trees grown in the forest? A single tree by the way side is far better where under people can rest (Vrikshayurveda). The towns and villages are made more healthy, more beautiful and more efficient by well planned streets with avenue planting. There is no doubt that, an impressive avenue gives any property the special distinction that it desires. In the past, Emperor Ashoka and Mughal rulers paid attention to roadside planting. Avenue trees primarily provide shade and act as windbreaks, weather conditioners-by purifying and humidifying the air, check radiation of heat and obstruct glare, limit noise and enhance the beauty of the street where they are planted. Roadside planting has two aspects; beauty and utility and both these aspects should be combined. This requires a thorough knowledge of plant material and imagination in planning.
Urbanization coupled with industrial development creates problems of environment like air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution and civic ugliness. Of late, there is a greater awareness of environmental issues and increasing understanding of several attributes of vegetation. This led to an intensification of activity in the field of landscape horticulture to combat pollution and create an aesthetic environment for recreation and healthy living. Planning and execution of landscape projects for different urban locations should be done to meet both aesthetic and ecological requirements.
Trees are perennial in nature and are valuable elements in a landscape. Trees provide shade, privacy and beauty but a tree in a wrong place may create problem in years to come. To avoid this, care should be taken while selecting trees for landscape. The ultimate size and shape of the mature tree, how much annual maintenance it requires, location and purpose are major considerations while selecting a tree. Matured tree height and tree diameter should fit it into the space when tree is planted. Shape of canopy, colour of flower and season of flowering are also to be considered.
Moniliformis means ‘like a string of beads’ signifying the arrangement of flowers on the spike. The tree is native of tropical Australia. It is valued for afforestation and beautification. It grows in warm climate under both dry and moist atmosphere. It is a medium-sized, thornless, quick growing, evergreen tree of 13 to 15 m height. Leaves: True leaves are present only in early seedling stage. The apparent leaves are the modified midrib called phyllode, leathery, sickle-shaped, tapered at each end, up to 18 cm long and 6 cm broad; nerves parallel.
Bonsai first appeared in China over a thousand years ago on a very basic scale, known as pun-sai, where it was the practice of growing single specimen trees in pots. These early specimens displayed sparse foliage and rugged gnarled trunks which often looked like animals, dragons and birds. With Japan’s adoption of many cultural trademarks of China, bonsai was also introduced to Japan during the Kamakura period (1185-1333) by means of Zen Buddhism, which at that time was rapidly spreading around Asia. Once bonsai was introduced into Japan, the art was refined to an extent not yet approached in China. Over time, bonsai, which was confined to the Buddhist monks and their monasteries, were introduced as a symbol of prestige and honour. It became an important part of Japanese life by being displayed on specially designed shelves. For the Japanese, bonsai represents a fusion of strong ancient beliefs with the Eastern philosophies of the harmony between man, the soul and nature.
Renewable energy sources, are the sources of power that quickly replenish and which can be used again and again. For this reason they are sometimes called energy resources. The main sources of renewable energy and their advantages and disadvantages are : Solar Energy from sunlight is captured in solar panels and converted into electricity. Potentially it is an infinite source of energy supply, but the solar panels are costly.
Vedic literature indicates that the energy in the universe gets transmitted into the human body through star galaxies. The star galaxies of our universe are divided into 27 parts each signified by a particular star (nakshatra). Every human being is assigned to a particular star by virtue of his birth time. Each star is associated with a tree. The tree associated with his star gives the universal energy to the human being. Thus astrology gives us a chance to identify the tree which is auspicious to us, being associated with our birth star. When one plants the tree associated with his birth star near his dwelling, it will bring good luck and prosperity to him.
Bibliography Bose, T.K., Das, P and Maiti, G.G. 1998. Trees of the World. Vol.I. Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhuvaneswar, Orissa, India. Bose, T.K. and Chowdhury, B. 2004. Garden plants in colour: Trees – Tropical and subtropical. Bose, T.K., Chowdhury, B., Cameron, P.M., Maiti, G.G. and Maiti, R.G. Partha Sankar Basu (eds.), Naya Udyog, Kolkata 239p. Dhiman, A.K. 2004. Ayurvedic Drug Plants. Daya Publishing House, New Delhi Editore, A.M. 1982. The MacDonald Encyclopedia of Trees. MacDonald and Company, London. Hora, B. 1981. The Oxford Encylopedia of Trees. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. Ingels, J.E. 1978. Landscaping: Principles and Practices. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York. 69p. Kohli, R.K. 1996. Need and planning for avenue trees in cities – A Chandigarh experience. Khosla, P.K. (ed.) Ecofriendly Trees for Urban Beautification, ISTS, Solan, p.41. Mani, 1974. Ecology and Biogeography in India. Dr. W Junk. b.v. publishers, The Hague, 773p. Myers, 1990. Biodiversity Challenge: Expanded Hot Spots Analysis. The Environmentalist 10: 243-256. Nadkarni, K.M. 1954. Indian Materia Medica. Popular Prakashan, Bombay. Nowak, D.J. 1995. Air pollution removal by Chicago urban forest. Chicago’s Urban Forests Ecosystem. Pherson, E.G., Nowak, D.J. and Routree, R.A.(eds.). Technical Report, No. 186: 65-85.
trees, landscape, aesthetic, functional benefits, environment, urban areas, planting, flowering trees, india, history, spiritual significance, biodiversity, modern landscaping, ecological value, avenue planting, cultural practices, pruning, ornamental trees, economic trees, medicinal trees, bonsai, renewable energy