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Seafood is an important source of proteins, micronutrients, minerals and polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids required by the human population. Globally, the seafood production reached a record of 184.6 million tonnes in 2022, largely due to the growth of aquaculture. The amount of seafood meant for human consumption globally is 20.2 kg per capita. The global trade of seafoods generated around USD 257 billion in 2021. The consumption of seafoods has increased internationally at an average annual rate of 3.0% compared with a population growth rate of 1.6%. Seafood is forecasted to increase by a further 15% by 2030, and it can provide nutritious food requirements for a larger proportion of human population. The value of traded seafoods accounted for 11% of total agricultural trade in 2020. Among the muscle foods, the contribution of seafoods to the export value is 49%. Despite the major progress in processing, refrigeration and transportation facilities, millions of tonnes of seafoods are lost or nutritionally compromised every year. The food loss and waste is a major issue and is the focus of Sustainable Development Goal that aims at halving wastage by 2030. In fisheries and aquaculture sector, it is estimated that up to 35% of the seafood production is either lost or wasted every year due to food safety, quality and authenticity issues. Safe seafood is a primary requirement of human health. It is a basic human right to have access to safe, nutritious and healthy seafood. To guarantee this right, food regulatory authorities must ensure that available aquatic food meets safety standards. The implementation of Food Safety and Standards Act, and Food Security Act by the Govt. of India bring out some positive impact on the Indian food industries for providing safe food to the consumers. However, the seafoods marketed in India as well as exported to USA, EU, Japan and other countries need several food safety and quality interventions against the background of emerging aquatic foodborne pathogens, and usage of chemicals like formalin, ammonia, antibiotics, pesticides, heavy metal contaminants, and food additives in seafoods. The Joint FAO/WHO body, Codex Alimentarius Commission, has been at the forefront of bringing out global changes in seafood safety regulations. Similarly, the WHO, FAO, UNEP and WOAH have jointly considered food safety as part of their One Health Plan.

In this chapter, the importance of seafood in terms of their nutrition, and different methods of processing are dealt. Seafood quality and safety terminologies are explained briefly. The quality parameters affected by rigor mortis in raw, iced and cooked fish are given. Phenomenon of gaping described with reference to rigor mortis. Quality dimension of seafood is explained with intrinsic and extrinsic parameters. Various intrinsic factors affecting seafood quality such as f ish species, seasonal changes, parasite infestation and capture conditions are discussed in detail. The next part elucidates the sensory parameters affecting the seafood quality describing the objective and subjective method of quality assessments. Objective method covers both descriptive and discriminative tests. The final part mentions the Codex guidelines available for the conduction of seafood sensory assessment. At the end, the reader gains the knowledge on the basic information about seafood, role of rigor mortis in affecting seafood quality and the sensory quality assessment methods. Objective To learn the nutritional importance of seafood and their processing; rigor mortis and their role in seafood quality, intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting seafood quality and sensory quality assessment methods. 1.1. Importance of Seafood Seafood has been traditionally a part of diet in many parts of the world. In some countries like India, it constitutes the main supply of animal protein among coastal population. Seafood is a low-calorie food and easily digestible compared to other protein-rich meat and poultry products and hence, it is a good choice for elderly persons to obtain their daily protein requirements. Seafood has high-quality quality enriched with all the essential amino acids required for human health. It provides about 1/3rd of the average recommended daily allowance (RDA) of protein.

Introduction Quality of fish is affected by various factors, which are classified into two categories: intrinsic factors and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors are the chemical and physical properties inherent to fish. Extrinsic factors are treatments given to fish before and after catch until it reaches the consumer, which includes the method of catch, cross contamination, processing, preservation, and product storage environment (temperature, humidity, packaging). The processing methods such as drying, smoking, chilling, and salting greatly help to minimize the spoilage. The quality of fish is also dependent on cold chain, in which the temperature is managed and monitored at every stage of production, transport, storage and sale. 2.1. Pre-Harvest Factors Pre-harvest factors relates to the intrinsic factors affecting the quality of fish, as they are beyond the direct control of human. Various intrinsic factors affecting quality are fish species, size, sex, physiological state, parasites, naturally toxic fish, pollutants, and occasional peculiarities. Additionally, some of the extrinsic factors like method of catch and feeding interruption for starvation are also considered as pre-harvest factors affecting the quality of fish. 2.1.1. Species Characteristics The quality of fish is related to species. For instance, flat fish keep better than round fish. Post-mortem pH varies between species. For example, long rigor period and low pH (5.4-5.6) of very large flatfish and halibut give relatively long iced storage life of 21 days, while mackerel with low post-mortem pH has no effect on shelf life. Some fish are rated as good quality as they are expensive, example, seer fish and pomfret. Fatty fish are rejected sensorial before lean fish due to the appearance of oxidative rancidity. So, lean fish keep longer than fatty fish under aerobic storage. Bony fish are edible longer than cartilaginous fish. Skin of fatty pelagic fish is very thin and contribute to faster spoilage rate, as it allows enzymes and bacteria to penetrate more rapidly. Thick skin and slime of flatfish contribute for better keepability, as slime contains bacteriolytic enzymes, antibodies and other antibacterial substances.

Introduction Seafood undergoes rapid spoilage after capture or harvest due to their highly perishable nature. Spoilage refers to any change that renders seafood unacceptable for human consumption. Spoilage occurs as a consequence of various microbial, biochemical and chemical breakdown processes. Spoilage leads to quality changes in seafood. Quality change refers to any change that occur after harvest due to unpredictable catch, uncontrolled harvest, inadequate handling, processing and storage facilities. The initial quality loss is mainly due to the post-mortem autolytic activity (enzymatic process) and chemical degradation process (lipid oxidation); and later by microbial degradation. The quality problems occur as a result of poor-quality raw material, ice and water, microbiological contamination, presence of heavy metals and other storage aspects during processing. Processing of fish means preparing raw fish into a marketable form. Pre processing is done prior to final processing. Pre-processing is often done on board fishing vessel or in a shore based plant. It includes operation such as washing, sorting, grading, butchering, etc of the harvested fish. The butchering involves removal of non-edible portions such as viscera, head, tails and fins from fish. The yield of fish meat varies from 30 to 70% depending on the butchering process. Butchering process includes beheading, gutting, filleting, peeling, deveining, shucking, etc. The discarded portion of fish meat are fish wastes, often used for animal feed or for conversion to bioactive functional foods. Final processing of fish includes processes such as heating, freezing, drying, salting, marinading, irradiation, or addition of chemicals. The processed seafood is categorized into five major groups – chilled, frozen, canned, cured and other value-added products in this chapter.

Introduction “Quality” refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness of fish. It also involves safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. The best quality fish is the one consumed within the first few hours after postmortem. We studied in our previous chapters that in some instances, even very fresh fish in rigor mortis are unsuitable for filleting. So, slightly older fish in post-rigor are more desirable for the processors. The assessment methods of fish quality are divided into sensory, instrumental, chemical and microbiological. Sensory method is superior and all other methods must correlate with the results of sensory evaluation. So, sensory method must be done more scientifically under controlled conditions without the effects of test environment, personal bias, etc. 4.1. Sensory Methods Sensory evaluation is defined as the scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret reactions characteristics of fish, as perceived through the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. There are few instruments capable of measuring sensory profile viz. Instron for texture, electronic nose for odour, microscopic imaging for structure, etc. In sensory evaluation, appearance, odour, flavour and texture of fish are evaluated by the human senses. The process involves three steps: (1) detection of a stimulus by the human sense organs, (2) evaluation and interpretation by a mental process; and (3) the response of the assessor to the stimuli. The response of stimuli varies among individuals e.g. some people cannot taste rancid flavour and some have low response to cold-storage flavour.

Introduction Quality is very important in any production and operation system. It ensures whether the products produced or the services provided are of the right quality in right quantity at right time. Quality management must ensure proper quality of the product to survive in the market and expand its market. Quality of the product must be given importance to avoid quality failures that cause serious human inconveniences and wastage of money. 5.1. Definitions and Terminologies 5.1.1. Quality We say a product is of satisfactory quality, if it satisfies the consumers. According to C. D. Lewis, a British writer, quality is “an asset which is offered to the potential customer of that product or service”. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has put up a more comprehensive definition of quality as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements” (ISO 9000: 2005 – 3.1.1). In general terms, ‘quality’ is defined as the composite of characteristics that differentiate individual units of a product to determine its acceptability by the customer. Quality characteristics are nothing but elements that makes a product fit for use. Quality characteristics are further classified into categories called as parameters. 5.1.2. Total Quality Management Total Quality Management (TQM) is an organization’s management approach, centered on quality. It improves the effectiveness and flexibility of a company or an organization. TQM is defined as “the system of establishing defect prevention actions and attitudes with a company or an organization on a permanent basis for the purpose of assuring conforming products or services directed at customer satisfaction”. TQM is based on the participation of all its members in decision making, which is aimed for long-term success, through customer satisfaction and benefits to the members of the company or organization and to the society.

Application of HACCP concept in surveillance & quality assurance programs for raw, frozen, canned, cured, irradiated, cooked, chilled, MAP & freeze dried products. HACCP Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) is a system that identify, evaluate and control hazards that are significant for food safety (CAC, 2003). It is a science based systematic approach that assesses hazards and establishes control systems to focus on prevention rather than end product testing. It enhances the safety of the product from biological, chemical, and physical hazards in a production process. It provides way to demonstrate competence to consumers and compliance with legislative requirements. 6.1. History HACCP was originally developed by Pillsbury Company in 1959 to produce zero defect food for astronauts of National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) in USA. In 1971, the HACCP concept was presented at the United States National Conference on Food Protection. The first major document on HACCP was approved by the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) in 1989. The Codex then issued the first HACCP guidelines in 1993, which was adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). The USFDA’s Seafood HAACP program became mandatory in USA since 1997. The European Union, in 2004, laid down the general hygiene requirements of all food business operators (EC Regulation 852/2004) and the additional specific requirements for foods of animal origin, including live bivalve mollusks and fishery products which (Regulation EC 853/2004). The United States Food Safety Modernization Act 2011 became the latest enforcement of food safety measures to protect public health. Thus, HACCP has become an International reference system for food safety assurance.

Introduction The risk assessment is gaining importance as the scientifically-based approach for the development of food safety and quality standards. It is a logical extension of HACCP revolution. In hazard analysis, first the hazards likely to occur in foods are identified, then an assessment is made of the severity of each hazard, and an evaluation is done of its likelihood to occur. Severity and likelihood are the two factors involved in risk assessment. Second, the increase in international trade has raised new safety and quality challenges. New approaches address the risk of cross-border transmission of infectious and hazardous agents with emerging food-borne diseases and quality problems. This has led to the development of a new safety and quality regulatory framework in 1995, the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) and the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreements of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In these two Agreements, two provisions are of importance to fish safety and quality: • National SPS and quality requirements should reflect standards agreed on in the international standards setting bodies i.e. Codex Alimentarius for food quality and safety. • Domestic standards can be developed based on scientific risk assessment. Risk assessment of microbiological hazards is identified as a priority area by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). In 1999, the Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH) in the 32nd session, identified a list of 21 pathogen commodity combinations that require expert risk assessment advice. FAO and WHO jointly launched a programme with the objective to provide an expert advice on risk assessment of microbiological hazards in foods to their member countries and to the CAC. Under which, expert groups are established to examine four priority pathogens: product pairings, e.g. Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat food; Salmonella in eggs and broiler chickens; Campylobacter spp. in broiler chickens; and Vibrio spp. in seafoods. Risk assessment is therefore important throughout all aspects of the seafood industry - for companies, national governments and for international regulators.

Introduction In all countries, food is governed by a complexity of laws and regulations, which set out the Government requirements to be met by food chain operators to ensure food safety and quality. Food laws and regulations also govern standards that ensure the safety, quality, composition and suitability of food for consumers. Food laws and regulations of any nation depends on whether a nation adopts International norms developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations as well as the World Health Organization (WHO). 8.1. Food Laws Food law means legislation that regulates the production, trade and handling of food. It covers the regulation of food control, food safety, quality and relevant aspects of food trade across the entire food chain, from the production to the consumer. Food laws protect the consumers against unsafe, adulterated and misbranded food and facilitate the movement of food across borders to sustain a fair trade. Each nation administers its own laws, regulations and standards. It is also not static always and is constantly revised and updated in all nations. The food business operators (FBO) must obtain up-to-date information on any changes made in legislation, that are likely to affect the product standards. The regulations of all nations shall be obtained from their respective websites of the national ministries. 8.1.1. International Legislations 8.1.1.1. United States of America (USA) In USA, the Food and Drug Act (1906) and the Federal Meat Inspection Act (1906) are the first federal food laws passed to protect American consumers. Later, Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (1938) regulated the meat and poultry products. At present, Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA), 2011 regulates all food products. https://www.fda.gov/food/guidance- regulation- food- and dietary- supplements/ food- safety- modernization- act- fsma. Manufacturers play important role in preventing food borne illness. The Act gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the authority to oversee and enforce supply chains. The Act shifts the focus towards prevention of food borne illness and insists every FBO to register with the FDA.

Introduction Export of quality seafood products is important to have a success in international marketing. Exporters must be quality conscious and the Governments must insist on quality control and inspection. The seafood export industry in India is over 50 years old. Seafood contributes 10% of the total exports and nearly 20% of all agricultural exports. In the year 2022-23, India exported 17,35,286 MT seafood to more than 100 countries worth US $8.09 billion equivalent to Rs. 63,969.14 crore. There are over 150 fish processing facilities approved by the European Union out of the existing 350 processing facilities. The Export Inspection Council and the Marine Products Export Development Authority are working very closely with the fish processing industries for the growth of seafood exports. The Government of India enacted the Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963 for the development of export trade through quality control and inspection. It empowers the Government to notify the products intended for compulsory quality control and inspection prior to their export. It specifies the type of quality control required for the notified products. It recognizes standard specifications for a notified product. It prohibits the export of notified products that are not complying with export conditions. It creates a machinery for quality control and take measures to protect markets for Indian commodities. As the first step, Export Inspection Council (the Council) was established on 1st January 1964 for implementation of various provisions of the Export (Quality Control & Inspection) Act, 1963.

Introduction The international fish trade increases day by day reaching to a tune of USD 151 billion in 2020 (FAO, 2022). Many developing countries like India gain benefits from this trade as income through net foreign exchange reached to a level of 8.09 billion USD in 2019-20. Seafood supplied by developing countries contribute to 77% of fish consumption worldwide. The European Union (EU) is the single largest market for fish and fishery products to a tune of 91.74 billion USD in 2022 as a consequence of an increased per capita consumption among its Member States. Spain, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are the largest importer of fish and fishery products. To protect consumer health and to protect the territory from the introduction of animal and plant diseases, the European Community (EC) has laid down joint conditions for imports of foodstuffs. The Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection (DG SANCO) is responsible for food safety in the EU. The import rules for fishery products are framed of high standards with respect to hygiene, consumer safety and animal health status. It is important that importing countries and food business operators (FBOs) must understand the fundamental principles and requirements of the European Food Law to ensure efficient and smooth imports. The EU system relies on Government to Government assurances without any intervention of any private type certification or standards. The Competent Authority (CA) in the country of origin is responsible for giving the official guarantees to the EU regarding compliance and conformity to all requirements of its legislation. The Export Inspection Agency (EIA) is the Competent Authority in India for issuing the required official guarantees for export of fish and fishery products. The EIA maintains a complete list of all establishments under its control.  

Introduction Nutrition is the study of how food and nutrients affect the body’s health and well-being. It encompasses all aspects of food, from the food production, processing, consumption and digestion by the body. A balanced diet included all the essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals for maintaining good health. The recommended daily intake of nutrients varies depending on the age, gender and physical activity of a person. The nutritional need also varies depending on the lifestyle and medical condition of a person. The nutrition facts are based on recommended daily intakes for various nutrients, which vary based on factors such as age, sex, and physical activity. These facts are given on food packaging or label, providing important information on the serving size, calories, macronutrients and micronutrients, and other ingredients. Nutrition labels are mainly intended to guide the consumer in food selection. Nutrition information provided on labels must be true and should not mislead consumers. Nutrition labelling regulations are provided by countries to help manufacturers. The Codex guidelines on Nutrition Labelling provide guidance to member countries to develop or update their national regulations and to encourage harmonization of national standards with international standards. According to it, no food should be described or presented in false, misleading or deceptive way. Nutrition labelling cannot solve nutrition problems, instead it is one of the elements of nutrition policy. 11.1. Nutrition Facts Nutrition Facts means the nutritional information required for most of the packaged food in many countries giving the energy value and nutrients contained in the food. Nutrition facts labels are required by regulation similar to other types of food labels. It provides detailed information on the nutrient content of the food such as the amount of fat, sugar, sodium and dietary fiber.

Introduction Seafood provides about 25% of the global intake of animal protein and fetches a huge economy for developing nations. Many challenges concerning food safety and quality exist due to globalization and liberalization of the global f ish trade. International food safety regulatory bodies such as WTO and CAC through SPS and TBT Agreements work on ensuring food safety and quality. Adoption of risk-based analysis and implementation of the HACCP system are encouraged to maintain high seafood safety standards. International regulatory bodies set maximum residual limits for various environmental pollutants and contaminants to ensure consumer safety. Consumer education programs play important role to enhance awareness and improve transparency in the seafood supply chain. Internationally traded seafood products therefore need to meet the standards prescribed for food safety and quality requirements. In case of non-conformance, they could be detained, rejected and destroyed. The global demand on seafood quality and safety requirement and the complexities of seafood supply chain make difficulty to ensure authenticity and traceability of seaood products in the market. Most seafood is exported from the country where it is caught while part of it via. a third country. Seafood pass-through complex supply chains involving, capture/culture, transshipment, processing, packaging, wholesale, retailing, and consumer. The global trade of seafood has led to a significant concern associated with seafood fraud. 12.1. Seafood Fraud Seafood fraud is the practice of providing misleading information to the consumers about their product for financial gain. There are nine types of seafood fraud, which include species substitution, fishery substitution, IUU substitution, species adulteration, chain of custody abuse, catch method fraud, undeclared product extension, modern day slavery, and animal welfare

Introduction Wastes produced during fish processing operations can be solid or liquid. Solid wastes consist of skin, viscera, fish heads, fish bones, and scraps of f lesh. Liquid wastes are the blood water and brine from drained storage tanks, water discharges from washing and cleaning, blood and soluble substances from entrails, and detergents and other cleaning agents. The effluent from the processing of fatty fish contains very high levels of oil. Overall, the wastewater from fish processing operation contains an undefined mixture of substances, mostly organic in nature. 13.1. Physicochemical Parameters of the Wastewater 13.1.1. pH The pH is an important parameter that reveals contamination level before biological treatment. The effluents from fish processing plants are usually close to 7 or alkaline, due to decomposition of the proteinaceous matter and emission of ammonia compounds. 13.1.2. Solids Content Solids may be present either in dissolved or suspended form. Suspended solids are objectionable as they settle in the wastewater ducts reducing their capacity or settle in the waterbody affecting bottom - dwelling flora or sometimes float reducing the light entering from the surface or remain suspended reducing the amount of light that enters the water. The settling solids are measured using an Imhoff cone. If the wastewaters contain solids that settle after 10 min, their discharge is usually not permitted. The suspended solids are measured by passing a sample through a fiberglass filter; and determining the quantity by gravimetry, after evaporation of a known volume of the filtrate.

A  A. amstelodami 48, 50  A. candidus 48, 50  A. chevalieri 48, 50  A. flavus 48, 50  Achromobacter 246  Acid phosphatase 20, 33  Activated sludge 246, 247  Adenosine diphosphate 33, 72  Adenosine monophosphate 33, 70, 72  Adenosine triphosphate 33, 72, 75  Adhesive batter 57  Aerated lagoons 247, 256  Aerobic plate count 153  Aerobic process 246, 250  Aerobic treatment 246, 249  Aeromonas 18, 26, 33, 47  Agmatine 71  Alanine 22, 73  Alkaline phosphatase 33  Alteromonas putrefaciens 41  Ammonia 32, 33, 69, 70, 239, 240, 244, 253, 254  Amnesic shellfish poisoning 19  Amylase activity 22  Anaerobic treatment 250, 254  Animal welfare 139, 213, 218  Anisakis 6, 7, 18  Anisidine value 74  Antibiotics 19, 27, 168, 187, 194, 209, 244  Antimicrobial peptides 38  Arginine 44, 71  Ascorbic acid 36, 40  Aspergillus glaucus 50  Aspergillus niger 48  Asphyxiation 21  Assessment Panel of Experts 163, 164  Astaxanthin 21, 40  ATPase 24, 25, 33, 44