Preface The male spadices (grouped in flowers) of kewda (Pandanus fascicularis Lam.) are highly aromatic and collected for use in the preparation of kewda perfumes, which have a growing demand in domestic and international markets. Hence, the ultimate economic value of kewda plantations depends on the quality of flower production. The plant normally takes about five years after planting for flowering initiation. It is estimated that about 30 to 40 million flowers distilled annually in the Ganjam district of Odisha accounting for about 90 % of our country’s total production of kewda perfumes mostly for kewda attar, water and oil. Besides kewda perfume industry, small cottage industries can also be set up to make various household usable items by utilizing different plant parts of kewda for the rural areas. The new regions of natural growing kewda plantations in good concentration should be identified for selection and propagation of superior strains to increase the flower productivity and a conscious cultivation of kewda deserves promotion by involving various agencies instead of leaving it to grow naturally. Therefore, the authors felt an imperative need to compile all the research findings and the collected information available through this book for development of appropriate cultural practices to boost high flower and perfume production in kewda. The present book on ‘Kewda’ contains 15 chapters including some fundamental aspects and understandings of the crop on origin and distribution, botany, breeding and crop improvement, cultivation, insect pests and diseases, perfume production, marketing and economics of cultivation with various economic uses of the crop. The book is written in a simplified form to make it very useful for the students, farmers, traders and researchers engaged in medicinal and aromatic crops. The efforts have been made to present the book in a systematic and comprehensive manner with illustrative tables, plates and figures, wherever felt necessary. We feel immense pleasure to express our heartfelt gratitude to the ICAR for sanctioning a project on Pandanus during the yester years, where the authors worked extensively and this book is an outcome of that. We are highly grateful to Dr. T. Mohapatra, Secretary, DARE and DG, ICAR, Govt. of India for writing a foreword. We also like to acknowledge the support and encouragement received from Dr. R. K. Mohapatra, Former Chief Librarian, OUAT and appreciate the efforts of M/s New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi for publishing this book in a nice presentable form. We wish to express our sincere gratitude to the kewda growers of Ganjam district, who contribute a lot of information through interactions of their secretive trade practices to make this publication, a success and as a respect, we dedicate this book to them. We further express our appreciation to Mr. A. Kar, P.A. to Vice-Chancellor, OUAT for typing the manuscript on the computer in a neatly manner within the shortest possible time.

Among the vast resources of plants, aromatic and medicinal plants are highly beneficial to mankind for supplying medicines and essence. Olfactory gland bearing aromatic plants are few and many of them are located mainly in tropics and sub-tropics. Ecological conditions in the tropics are so conducive for such plants that out of 75,000 edible plants, majority are found in this region. (Chai et al., 1979, Jong, 1979) Among the aromatic plants, kewda (Pandanus fascicularis Lam.), a common species of screwpine, is commercially important for its highly aromatic male spadices used in the production of highly prized kewda perfumes. Kewda attar, water and oil (rooh kewda) are the important perfumery products. Kewda attar blends well with most of the fancy perfumes, in preparation of lotions, cosmetics, soaps, hair oils, agarbatis (incense sticks), scenting clothes and flavouring betel masala, chewing tobacco and bouquets. Kewda water is used for flavouring various foods, confectionaries, sweets, syrups and soft drinks. The oil and attar are considered as stimulant, antispasmodic and administered for headache and rheumatism (Chopra et al., 1956). The kewda is mentioned frequently in Tamil classics as having flowers which neutralize the foul fish odour pervading the sea coast with their strong perfume. Jehangir in his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, described kewda flower for its strong and penetrating scent, which even obscures that of musk (Gandhi, 1989). Odisha state lying between 17o 52′ N to 22o 45′ N latitude and 81o 50′ E to 87o 50′ E longitude has a prosperous agriculture. Nearly 75 % of its working population are either cultivators or agricultural labourers and remaining 25 % are engaged in the categories of household industry and other works (Anonymous, 1988). The wastelands occupy 13.79 % of the total area of Odisha and are mostly scattered throughout the state. The areas of wastelands in the state mainly accounted for the hilly slopes, degraded forests, over grazed revenue wastelands, oil eroded valleys, drought stricken pastures, saline and marshy lands, etc. The changes in land use leading to creation of wastelands include overgrazing forest degradation and development of marginal cropland due to flood, drought and soil erosion etc. (Fig. 1).

Kewda (Pandanus fascicularis Lam.) is a native of the old world extending from Africa to Australia (Chittenden, 1956; Lorus and Milne, 1967; Mott, 1975). About 600 species of Pandanus are widely distributed in the moist tropics of the old world and kewda is the most widespread species being recorded from Mauritius Islands in the west to Polynesian and Micronesian Islands in the east (Deshaprabhu, 1966). It occupies an important position in the mythology of Melanesian, Polynesian and Micronesian Islands (Massal and Barrau, 1956). Kewda has been mentioned in the Indian mythology with several available legends. In Skandha Puran, it is mentioned that Ketaki (P. odorattisimus L.f.) flower is unfit to worship Shiva (Bhattacharjee, 1987). As regards to popularity of Kewda, one of the Gujarati tribal songs says that the sun rises behind the Kewda tree, the moon applies antimony to its eyes, the night is lit with soft moon light. Another mythological legend mentioned that during Satya Yuga, there was a fight between Brahma and Vishnu to know, to prove their greatness. Lord Shiva decided a simple method that the one, who can see his head or his feet, shall be greater than the other. Shiva disappeared and became so great that Brahma and Vishnu couldn’t see his head or feet and searched in different directions. Vishnu went up to patal, but couldn’t find his feet and Brahma had gone up to the highest peak and could not see the head of Shiva. On the returned way, Bramha found a Kewda flower and claimed that he had brought the flower from the head of Lord Shiva. On questioning by Vishnu, Kewda flower also replied that she was adorned by Shiva (Gandhi, 1989).

Botany Several vernacular names of kewda are reported in different languages all over the world ; viz. Keora, Ketgi, Keura, Gagandhul in Hindi; Keya, Ketaki, Kea, Ketkikea in Bengali; Kiya, Kia in Odia; Kewoda in Gujrati; Ato, Keto, Covasso in Konkani; Keoda, Keora in Marathi; Talemara in Kannada; Gedaji, Gedangimogali, Gojjangi, Ketaki, Mugali, Mogali in Telugu; Kaidai, Talhai, Thasai, Thazh, Kechiya, Kedagi, Kedagai, Muchali in Tamil; Kaita, Ketaki, Palliyambu in Malayalam; Gandhapuspa, Dalapushpa, Shivadvishta, Ketaki, Suchika pushpa in Sanskrit; Leram in Nicoberese; Mudukeyiya, wetakey in Sinhalese; Keora in Urdu; Gulkiri, Kader, Kadi in Persian; Satthapu, Tsatthapu in Burmese; Nalu in Nepalese; Togenashiadan in Japanese; Kadar, Kadhi, Kazi in Arabic Kaide, Kedige, Ketaki, Gedege, Mundige in Canarese; Kedgi in Deccan; Vaquois odorant in French and Schrauben palme in German. (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 1986; Kapoor, 1990).

The screwpines are tropical shrubby plants grown for the highly scented flowers or the ornamental foliage. The ornamental foliage types are generally cultivated in the green house and protected from direct sun. The variegated types loose the colour in a rich soil and hence should be grown in a rather poor soil containing just sufficient nutrients and moisture. Some species are good for potting and indoor decoration. The common screwpine is used as a hedge also (Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 1986) The screwpine (Pandanus), is highly polymorphic with numerous forms and varieties and selected in various countries for specific uses as maintained by vegetative propagation, e.g. P. leram (Plate 14), the Nicober-bread fruit, is grown in the Andaman Islands for its edible fruit providing a starchy food that is enjoyed locally; another species, P. utilis (Plate 15), on the remote Island of Mauritius, provides fibre from the leaves, used in making bags and a species from Polynesia, P.veitchii (Plate 16) is most commonly grown in green houses and outdoors as an ornamental, where the winter weather is mild and in the species the prop roots and branching stems are particularly well developed attracting attention from many people who might not otherwise notice the stranger from the tropics (Lorus and Milne, 1967). However, these three species give a striking foliage effect and especially useful in seaside gardens as P. utilis with green leaves; P. veitchii with banded white and P. leram with even longer leaves (Thomas, 1965). An unarmed form, forma laevis warb., is cultivated for the fragrant bracts of the inflorescence, while forma samak, a group of prickly Pandanus, is preferred for the tough leaves suitable for matting; another form with longitudinal yellow bands on leaves (forma variegatus) is grown for ornamental purposes (Deshaprabhu, 1966; Ambasta, 1986). In the Pacific Islands, some of the forms (e.g pulposus) are cultivated for their edible fruits (Purseglove, 1975; Ambasta, 1986). Burkill (1966) states that the common wild armed form of the sea-coasts was var. littoralis and that flower growers had selected various races for cultivation, which included the prickly var. samak and thronless var. laevis, grown in India, Malay and Indonesia, are used for making mats.

No breeding work has so far been done on kewda except selection of some promising morphotypes. Varietal improvement in kewda by breeding poses problems mainly due to dioecious nature and long life cycle of the plants, besides heterozygosity. Lack of promising strains is a major drawback. The wild growing population of kewda has a measure of variation and this has never been documented and utilized, which naturally offer a good scope for improvement of kewda by resorting to selection and subsequently propagating them vegetatively. Since a wide range of variation is available and the plants are mostly propagated by vegetative means, it is worthwhile to collect genetic stocks, access variability in morphological characters and attempt a breeding programme after selecting the desirable types for high flower production as the ultimate economate economic value of the plantations depends on the quantity of flower production to be used industrially in the distillation units.

Soil Soil has a pronounceed effect on the plant growth and productivity in kewda. Well drained sandy-loam soil with adequate supply of moisture is best suited for its vigorous growth and flower production. Thickly distributed profitableKewda plantations with normal flowering are found in the lateritic belts with deposits of silty loam soil and adequate moisture supply. In heavy clay soil with inadequate moisture supply, the plants grow vegetatively with poor flowering. At places close to the Bay of Bengal like Rangiagarh, Kujang, Paradeep of Jagatsinghpur district, where a silt-loam soil deposit is found over the clay zone, the dense plantations of kewda with free flowering ability are noticed. But surprisingly, the female plants are more at few places close to the Paradeep port, which may be due to seed propagation by drifting of ripe fruits from the uplands; while in Ganjam district, the farmers are used to plant the selected male plants in their field resulting in high flower production. The tentative age of the natural plantations is estimated from the rates of leaf production, stem and branch growth (5-50 cm / year) and development of branching pattern (primary and secondary) in conjuction with the interactions made with the local farmers of kewda (Fig. 9). The plants of different age groups (1 to 5 years) are observed for growth characters and flower production at Tulu of Ganjam and Konark of Puri districts under farmers’ field condition and it is observed that the initiation of flowers started at 5 years of age and the rate of flower production was 1.7 to 2.2 per plant (Table 9).

Kewda is exclusively propagated through ground suckers and leaf bearing terminal cuttings. In kewda growing areas, predominantly the terminal shoot cuttings are used in commercial plantations. However, the seeds are also capable to germinate and give rise to plants, but it is not in practice due to hard mesocarp and seed coat (Bailey, 1950, Deshaprabhu, 1966, Mott, 1975, Maharana and Jagadev, 1993). Seed propagation In kewda, the flowers develop into berries, which fuse to form a multiple fruit. The receptacle and bracts are included in the fruit. The seeds are deep seated and very difficult to extract, hence seeds are sown along with the fibrous drupes. Each drupe contains 2-9 seeds. Seeds collected from ripe fruits are sown during spring. The seeds normally, take about 3 months for germination due to the hard seed coat and impervious fibrous covering. Experimentally, it was observed that one hour sulphuric acid scarification treatment of the drupes reduced the germination period by about one month increasing the germination percentage as compared to direct sowing, however, scarification for more than one hour was deterimental (Table 14) (Maharana and Jagadev, 1993). Bailey (1950) reported that seed soaking in tepid water for 24 hours would aid the germination. The seed propagated plants (Plate-27) take about 2-3 years more for flowering as compared to vegetatively propagated plants.

In practice, flowers are collected from wild plantations. Recently kewda has emerged as one of the important commercial commodities. A systematic cultivation practice is essential to develop a successful plantation and to increase the productivity. Planting Kewda suckers or crowns are generally planted during June-July. i.e. in the beginning of the monsoon, when the soil is not too wet. Planting in wet soil delayd the root formation and reduces the success level. Just after the first shower of rain or during the summer shower close to monsoon, kewda is planted. In a full grown plant, stilt roots originate at a few feet above the ground to render a support for the huge canopy of the plant. Each part of the stem is capable enough for development of root initials, but it is retarded once the stem became old and leafless. The root initials develop at the terminal portion, where more leaves cluster, but they do not grow. Hence, the stem cuttings collected from the flowering or non-flowering shoots bear the rudimentary roots and when planted, they establish quickly. In practice, the cuttings are collected and scattered on the ground for two to three days. Before planting, a few leaves closed to the base of the cuttings are removed to expose the root development sites. The cuttings are planted in trenches of 45 cm depth horizontally or at an angle of 30o. The new leaves appear on the growing points one month after planting. Kewda plants are usually planted on the field bunds for fencing and subsequently used for collection of flowers. A 30 years old plant can produce a crown of 6-7 m, for which it is difficult to develop a commercial plantation in a close spacing. It has been observed in the natural plantations that the plants may be spaced at 8-10 m distance to achieve a full length of plantation life. It is, therefore, suggested by the authors to follow a paired row method of planting maintaining a spacing of 4 m between plants and rows of a paired row and 6 m between two paired rows; which provides all facilities for plant growth upto 10-12 years and then pruning of a few branches are required. Hence, a plant population of 500 plants in the field and 150-200 plants on field bunds are maintained in a land of one hectare.

Kewda plant occurs wild in the entire coastal belt of Odisha , but abundant in Chhatrapur and Keluapalli areas of Ganjam district. There were about 3-4 lakhs trees of kewda in Ganjam district (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Main season of flowering starts from July-August and lasts for 2-3 months and a few flowers also come during November-December and March-May (Haines, 1961). Averagely, a plant produces 15-20 flowers per season depending on branching of the tree (Plate 32). A fully matured tree bears 30-40 spadices in a year (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Flowering is also dependant on rainfall, being better in years of high rainfall. Size of flower is bigger during rainy season. The spadices take a fortnight to mature, depending upon the weather condition. Ripe spadices, creamy in colour, give higher yield of perfume and of better quality than immature ones (Plate 33). The kewda flower of Ganjam district is also registered under the geographical indications (GI) of goods (Registration and Protection) act (Panigrahy, 2019).

The volatile oil in the flower determines the odour and flavour of kewda and it has been of particular fascination to the chemists. There are only a few reports on the chemical composition of kewda essential oil (rooh or otto) Dhingra et al. (1954) distilled the kewda flowers collected from five places of Ganjam (Odisha) and Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh) districts. He found the oil yield to vary from 0.015 to 0.031% and the compounds identified were methyl ether of β- phenyl ethyl alcohol (65.97%), d-linalool (18.70%), dipentene (8.31%), phenyl ethyl acetate (3.48%) and citral (1.82%). The oil was of light to golden yellow in colour having the following physico-chemical properties viz., specific gravity (d20o) 0.932-0.958; refractive index (n20o) 1.485-1.491; optical rotation ([α]D) + 1.350 to + 2.080; acid value 1.4 – 6.7; ester value 15.9 – 40.9 and soluble in equal volume of 80 % alcohol (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Sadgopal (1959) also reported the major constituent of oil as methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (65 – 80%) and minor constituents as dipentene, α-linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, citral and some terpene esters. According to Chandra (1985), the oil contained dipentene (6.0%), d -linalool (19.0%), phenyl ethyl acetate (4.6%), citral (1.8%), caproic acid (0.5%) and stearoptene (0.2%) besides the major constituent methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (67.0%).

Kewda plants are hardly attacked by the insect pests and diseases. However, a few fungal and bacterial diseases are found to reduce the yield of flowers significantly. Some important insect pests and diseases of this plant with their nature of damage and suggested control measures are discussed here as reported by Jagadev et al. (2001). Pests 1. Bag worm During the dry season, leaves are found to be attacked by bag worm (Manatha albipes; Fam. Psychidae; order- Lepidoptera) (Plate 36). The larva, a foliage feeder, feeds on the chlorophyll and veins of leaves leaving the mid-rib resulting in perforation of leaves. In case of heavy infestation, the leaves become dry. Extensive damage arrests the vegetative growth resulting in significant reduction of flowering. Thus, the insect is considered to be of economic importance, but till date neither the extent of economic loss caused to the crop nor its control measures have been worked out.

French author Jean Giono once remarked, “The God creates the Odours, but the men manufacture the perfumes”. In today’s world, fragrances play bigger role than just being associated with a tiny bottle of liquid. It now serves the larger purpose of linking itself with anything you can imagine, from soaps to your favourite sweater knitted by your grandmother (Biswas, 2012). In the modern day, these products find their applications in items for personal sophistication to culinary delights and beverages, to a host of industrial products (Dev, 1993). India, a country known for its vast range of fragrant flowers and herbs, has used extracts from such raw material to produce incense sticks, medicines, body massage oils and sweet savouries. The word ‘perfume’ is derived from the Latin term ‘perfumen’, meaning ‘through smoke’. Perfume is a fragrant liquid mainly distilled from natural oils, aromatic chemicals and resinoids; cologne is a lightly scented liquid used to cool the skin and deodorant contains chemicals to counter offensive body odour. Perfume is basically used by women, cologne by men and deodorant by both (Saha and Sareen, 1997). Throughout antiquity there was a continuous demand for incense, to mark the rites of scenting passage from birth to the grave, for the daily rituals of incensing rooms, linen and clothing. The South Asian synonym for perfume, ‘attar’, on the other hand, is derived from the Arabic word ‘aettr’ meaning ‘fat’ or ‘extract’. Almost all attars are basically aromatic oils extracted from flowers, plants and herbs through steam distillation. Some fragile flowers and oils that can not stand the heat of distillation are, however, crushed and the oil expelled by mechanical force (Mahmud, 1992).

The world trade in flavour and fragrances in 1987 was US $ 7,000 million and at present, it is estimated at more than $ 10,000 million annually. In 1975, perfume was used by one woman in ten, but today it is used by eight out of ten women; even reticent Japanese women are adopting the habit (Anonymous, 1995 c). The average annual industry growth rate in perfumes of India is valued at about US $ 20 million with an annual growth rate of 12% (Murty, 1993),while the UK market is Rs. 2000 crores and the US market supersedes it by Rs. 4000 crores (Walia, 1997). However, the domestic luxury perfume market is estimated to grow at a rate of 20-25 % (Biswas, 2012). Besides domestic market, India earns a lot of foreign exchange from the export of total essential oils and perfumes and is fast growing as it is showed from the trends in export earnings of Rs. 11.1 corers in 1982-83 rose to 4-fold in 1986-87 of Rs. 41.1 crores (CHEMEXCIL, 1988). According to a market survey report, Ahmed (1999) reported that the daily turn over of the attar market in India is more than 50 crores. Middle East countries continue to be the big buyers of our traditional perfumes. Kewda flavour which is used in pan masala and tobacco is a familiar one in this part of the world. Kewda essence, being one of the few flavouring oils, has a good scope for export to other developed countries where the food flavouring industry is well developed. India is the leading producer of kewda perfumes in the world and the market for kewda perfumes is fast expanding specifically in the Arab countries. India exported the kewda water of Rs. 266.2 lakhs in 1986-87 which rose to Rs. 276.4 lakhs in 1987-88 (CHEMEXCIL, 1990). Anonymous (2007) reported that about 140 distilleries (bhattis), both local and outsider, earn about Rs.1.3 crore by way of extraction charges and annually they extract 332 kgs of kewda oil (Rs.8.3 crore), 7823 kgs of kewda attar (Rs.15.65 crores) and 150 MTs of kewda water (Rs.4.47 crore), the total coming to around Rs.28 crore. For extracting attar , the extractors use about Rs. 8 crore worth of sandal wood oil procured mainly from other states, while Rs.18 crore goes to the plantation owners as flower cost and to the flower collectors.

Kewda plants are mostly propagated through vegetative means. The common propagating materials used are ground suckers. The planting materials are planted in paired-row method maintaining a spacing of 4m from plant to plant and row to row keeping a spacing of 6 m between paired rows. In a field of one hectare, a minimum plant population of 500 plants in the field and 150 plants on the field bunds with a total of 650 plants are maintained. A fertilizer dose of 30:15:15 kg NPK/ha and 4 cartloads (100 cft) of FYM/ha are applied. The planting of collected ground suckers is normally done in the field just before monsoon after thorough land preparation under rainfed condition.The earthing-up of the plants are done up to five years of planting for quick initiation of flowering at the age of 5 years after planting. During the first year, the operational cost per hectare comes to Rs.28,900/- and from 2nd to 5th years, it comes to Rs.6,600 per year and then the maintenance cost from 6th year onwards comes to Rs.6,000/- per year. The details of the operational cost per hectare of kewda cultivation under rainfed condition of coastal Ganjam district is given at Table 23. Kewda plant comes to flower on the 5th year of planting, but the annual net profit begins on the 6th year of planting and the cumulative net profit starts on the 10th year (Table 24). The economic viability of kewda plantations is observed from 10th to 30th year of planting and after 30th year, the net profit declines. A farmer can earn an annual profit of Rs.61,000/- per hectare of kewda cultivation from 11th to 15th year, which goes on increasing and from 26th to 30th year, the annual net return reached to Rs.1,23,400/- with a cumulative return of Rs.4,04,970/- on the 30th year of planting. Then at the age of 35th year, it declines to Rs.1,07,800/ - and at 40th year to Rs.87,000/- per annum (Table 24). Although the profit was calculated only on the basis of sale of flowers yield, some additional profit can be obtained from other plant parts like leaves and stilt roots. After distillation of one lakh flowers, the spent over flowers and plant parts can be utilized as fertilizer/manure by selling at a rate of Rs.1000/- per batch. In the two blocks (viz., Chhatrapur and Rangeilunda) of Ganjam district, about 7,000 women are engaged for collection of flowers, leaves and stilt roots and they prepare ropes and other household items from the roots and leaves. It has been observed that one female can prepare 12 bundles of ropes each of 12 m length and the sale rate of rope is about Rs.10/- per metre. The ropes are sent to the markets of Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Chennai (Tamil Nadu) for sale. The profit can also be increased by incorporating some inter-crops like Casuarina, coconut, Agasti and medicinal crops like Patchouli etc. Further, kewda can be taken on the sand dunes and waste saline land of the coastal lines, where no other crops can be grown profitably. Hence, kewda needs better attention for its extensive cultivation with a foresight on the perfume industry.

1. House Plant The screwpines or kewda plants are characteristics of many tropical regions with long ringed trunks, bracing roots and crowns of Dracaena-like foliage. The young plants are amongst the most popular foliage plants for home decoration as the plants do not flower at early stages (Wickham, 1950). They are also grown as pot and tub specimens for green house, residence, veranda and lawn decoration where their stiff clustered foliage gives them a formal decorative character. They may be kept as indoor ornamental foliage plants in the warm and semi light places of a house. (Wickham, 1982a). 2. Fence The plant is useful for binding the soil, so checks soil erosion and not browsed by the cattle due to its spiny leaves; hence sometimes used as fence around the crop field in the coastal districts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Gujrat. The plants are often used for hedges as in the Casuarina plantations at Puri of Odisha (Haines, 1961a) (Fig. 17).

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