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Pests are one of the most enduring and constantly changing issues in the agricultural industry, threatening the health, yield, and quality of crops, leading to significant economic losses for farmers, gardeners, and horticulturists alike. Despite being a normal component of the ecosystem, pests have a significant and frequently disastrous effect on vegetables, spices and ornamental plants. Because of their short growing season, high yield, nutritional value, economic feasibility, and capacity to produce both on- and off-farm income, vegetables are crucial components of Indian agriculture and nutritional security. Vegetables are generally low in calories yet high in nutrients, including vitamins, minerals, and fibres. They also contain natural compounds known as antioxidants, which help protect our cells from damage. In 2023–2024, India exported approximately $708 million worth of processed vegetables and over $1.345 billion worth of raw vegetables. Insect pests pose a major threat to the production and productivity of vegetable crops. Spices and condiments are a significant category of horticultural products and have long been considered essential in the culinary arts for adding flavor to meals. Some have colourant, preservative, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antibiotic qualities, while others are utilised in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and fragrance industries, among other sectors. They play a crucial role in the national economies of India contributing an export earnings of US$ 4.46 billion during 2023-24. Major reason for the low productivity of spices in India is the incidence of pests and diseases.

Amaranthus is an important leafy vegetable and is grown all over the Indian subcontinent. Amaranthus tricolor Linn and A. blittum Linn. are the common varieties cultivated. These herbaceous annuals are a rich source of proteins, vitamins A and C, and iron. The foliage is a good source of calcium, iron, and vitamins A, B, and C. In contrast, grains are good sources of important amino acids, particularly lysine, and are rich in dietary fibre, calcium, and minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, and manganese. It enhances the body’s immune system and antioxidant status while lowering blood pressure and cholesterol. Fresh leaves and tender stems are used as vegetables. Production of amaranthus is affected by the incidence of pests. Cultivated amaranth is currently infested by a total of 92 different insect pests. (Rajeshkanna et al., 2017) among which the leaf webbers and amaranthus stem weevil are the most important pests. Biology: Black moth with dark brown wings bearing white wavy markings on wings. Eggs are laid singly on leaves. Egg period 3 to 4 days. Larval duration will be completed within a period of 2 weeks. Pupation occurs among the leaf webbings and pupal duration lasts for 10 days. Several larvae can be seen inside each leaf web.

Cucumbers, muskmelons, watermelons, squashes, gourds, and pumpkins are commonly grown cucurbits in most parts of the world. Cucurbitaceous crops are the most important summer vegetables grown all over the world and it includes 118 Genera and 825 Species. Production and productivity of cucurbits are affected by the incidence of pests and diseases. Important pests attacking cucurbits are fruit fly, snake gourd semilooper, red pumkin beetles, hadda beetles/ epilachna beetles, pumkin caterpillar, vine borer/ clear winged moths, gall fly, serpentine leaf miner, shield bug, snake gourd bug and plume moth. The melon fruit fly is distributed widely in temperate, tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It has been reported to damage 81 host plants and is a major pest of cucurbitaceous crops. The extent of loss varies between 30 –100 per cent depending on the cucurbit species and season. The adult is reddish brown with lemon yellow curved vertical markings on the thorax and fuscous shading on the outer margin of wings. Biology: Eggs are white and cylindrical and laid singly or in clusters in cavities made with the ovipositor of the females on the fruits. The holes are sealed with gummy secretions, which solidify to form a shiny brown resinous material. Egg period is 1 to 2 days. The emerging maggots are apodous, dirty white, thicker at one end and tapering at the other and are seen within the fruits. Larval period is 7 days. The mature larvae emerge from the fruits and pupate in soil for a period of one week. Life cycle is completed in 15 to 20 days.

Cow pea is an important vegetable crop in Kerala. The crop was originated in Africa and is the major source of plant proteins in the diet of rural populations in Africa. The grains contain 25% protein and several vitamins and minerals. Insect pests pose the greatest threat to cowpea production. The crop is severely attacked at every stage of its growth by insects. High pest densities occur at many locations with complete loss of grain yield if no control measures are taken. Moth has greyish brown forewings with large transverse hyaline band and a few smaller spots. Hind wings are hyaline with brown outer margin. The female moth lays eggs on or near flower buds. Caterpillars are brownish green with black warts. The young caterpillars bore into the buds, flowers or pods. Pods with bore holes may be seen. The infested flowers and pods may be webbed together. Flower drop may occur in severe cases. Caterpillars may bore into the stem also (Mahalakshmi et al., 2016). Host range Soybean, blackgram, greengram, Groundnut, common bean, lima bean, chickpea, mung bean, broad bean, pigeon pea.

Crucifers, also known as Brassicas or cole crops, are a group of vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (formerly Cruciferae). Common cruciferous vegetables include cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, mustard, turnip, and radish. These crops are widely grown around the world due to their nutritional value, economic importance, and adaptability to diverse climates. However, crucifers are highly susceptible to a wide range of insect pests that can cause significant yield losses if not managed properly. These pests attack various parts of the plant, including leaves, stems, roots, and heads, leading to both quantitative and qualitative damage. Distribution Crocidolomia binotalis is widely distributed in India and is particularly prevalent in regions where cruciferous vegetables are cultivated. The pest is active from the third week of November to the fourth week of December, with varying population densities depending on environmental conditions (Pawar et al., 2010)

Okra, commonly known as lady’s finger is a significant vegetable crops primarily grown in tropics and subtropics. Production and productivity of okra is affected by the incidence of pests and diseases. More than 70 insect pests have been recorded in okra (Ewete, 1978). Biology: Forewings of the moth white with a pea- green wedge-shaped band running medially from base to outer margin of each wing. Eggs are laid on tender parts of the plant, leaf axils, bracts, leaf veins, buds, flowers and fruits singly or in two’s or threes. Egg period - 3-4 days. Caterpillars are brownish with median longitudinal streak dorsally and pale yellow or green ventrally. Larval period is 2 weeks. Pupae are seen on the plant in dirty white boat shaped cocoons made of silk. Pupal period is one week. The life cycle is completed in about a month. Nature of damage and Symptoms The newly hatched larvae bore into the terminal shoots or fruits. The damaged shoots droop, wither and dry up. The infested fruits are deformed with holes on them plugged with excreta.

Distribution Thrips tabaci is present in the central and southern regions of India, occupying about 36.4% of the land area under the current climate conditions. In central India, the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and parts of Rajasthan offer highly suitable habitats. In the northern region, areas such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand, & parts of the northeastern states are favorable. In southern India, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, & Tamil Nadu are particularly suitable. Biology Adults: Adult onion thrips overwinter in soil in onion, small grain, and hay fields. More mobile than immature stages, adults can fly and are attracted to white and yellow colours, often landing on clothing or skin. They are elongated, with body colour ranging from yellow to brown, and have pale, fringed wings. Adults measure 1.0–1.3 mm for females and 0.7 mm for males. Their lifespan is 16–42 days on garlic and 28–30 days on onion. Females lay eggs for up to three weeks after a one-week preoviposition period. In spring, adults emerge, colonize weed hosts, & can fly or be carried by wind to new plants. Eggs Females lay eggs individually in leaf tissue, with one end near the surface for immatures to emerge. The eggs are microscopic, kidney-shaped, and initially white or yellow, turning orange with reddish eye spots as they mature. On onion, eggs average 0.23 mm in length and 0.08 mm in width. The incubation period is 4–5 days on onion, with hatching occurring in 2–3 days in the lab, but 5–10 days in cooler field conditions.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena), also known as eggplant or aubergine, is a major solanaceous vegetable crop grown in India and other parts of the world. It is affected by several insect pests throughout its growth period, significantly reducing both yield and quality. Introduction One of the major constraints in production and productivity of brinjal is the incidence of pests and diseases. The fruit and shoot borer is one of the most damaging pests of brinjal. Pest infestation starts from transplanting seedling stage and continues up to harvesting of the crop. Pest is active throughout the cropping season with peak infestation from last week of August to December Distribution China, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, Laos, Congo and South Africa

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.), a member of the Solanaceae, is a significant spice and vegetable crop in India, extensively cultivated over warm temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions. Approximately 51 insect pests and two mite species from 27 families and 9 orders were discovered to be infesting chillies (Reddy and Puttaswamy, 1983). The yield losses range from 50-90 per cent due to insect pests in chilli (Nelson and Natrajan, 1994) Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thripidae, Thysanoptera Biology The adults are slender, yellowish brown in colour, with long, narrow, and heavily fringed wings. The adult female inserts eggs into the tissues of the leaves and shoots. The nymphs are similar to adults, except they are smaller and wingless. With the exception of the rainy season, the pest is present all year round. The life cycle is completed over a period of two weeks. Over the course of a year, multiple generations overlap. Recently introduced invasive thrips in chilly is Thrips parvispinus Karny. It causes premature flower drop, shedding of fruits and malformations resulting in severe yield loss. The average fecundity is about 56 eggs with a mean developmental period of 18.8 days (Muray et al., 2009).

Fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera, Noctuidae, Lepidoptera Biology: The adult females are light pale brownish-yellow stout moths while the male moths are pale greenish with V-shaped speck. The eggs are creamy white and sculptured type. They are laid singly. The larva shows colour variation from greenish to brown. It has dark brown grey lines on the body with lateral white lines and also has a dark band. Pupation occurs in soil, leaf, fruit, and crop debris. Nature of damage and symptoms • The young larvae feed on tender foliage • Mature larvae bore into fruit through circular holes • Larva thrust only a part of its body into fruit and eat the inner content

Introduction Potato is a tuber crop belonging to the Family solanaceae. In India large number of insects are attacking potato both in field as well as storage thereby causing both direct and indirect losses to farmers. Distribution Potatoes are cultivated in almost all states of India, but the majority of the crop is grown in the Indo-Gangetic plains of North India. The major potato growing states are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Bihar, and Karnataka (Rana and Anwer, 2018). Distribution Most potato cultivating fields of North India Host plants: Carrot, broccoli, cabbage, mustard, radish, cucumber, pepper, wheat, rice (Holman, 2009).

Black pepper, popularly known as the “King of spices”, is the most popular spice crop in the world, and the crop originated in the Western Ghats and Malabar coast of India. India was the centre of pepper trade from time immemorial. Recently, black pepper production in the country remained stagnant at around 90000 tonnes in the last few years. Hence, India is losing its status as a leading producer and exporter of black pepper. Kerala accounts for 75 per cent of total black pepper production in the country. It has been noted that the increase in area under cultivation is not in tune with the increase in production. Low productivity is mainly due to the incidence of pests and diseases. Black pepper is infested by 56 species of insects in India; among these, pollu beetle, (Lanka ramakrishnae Prathapan & Viraktamath), top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa Meyr), scale insects (Lepidosaphes piperis and Aspidiotus destructor) are considered as major pests (Devasahayam, 2000). It is one of the most destructive pests of black pepper and the infestation is severe in plains of Malabar region (20-30 %) and low in hilly tracts (Wayanad and Idukki) and South Kerala. Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Cardamom, often called the “Queen of Spices”, is one of the most valuable and aromatic spices in the world. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae and the genus Elettaria. Cardamom, which is indigenous to South India's Western Ghats, is grown for its tiny, fragrant, green pods that contain tiny seeds that are used in cosmetics, medicine, and cooking. Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are the main cardamom-growing states in India, which ranks among the world's top producers. The crop grows best in shady regions with evenly distributed rainfall, rich forest soils, and humid, tropical weather. Introduction Shoot and capsule borer is a significant pest that infests a wide variety of wild and cultivated plants. Since larvae directly affect the reproductive plant parts, this pest becomes more significant in tropical and subtropical nations. Yellow peach moth, cardamom, or castor shoot and capsule borer are other names for the shoot and capsule borer (Thyagaraj, 2003). Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. A serious pest of the nursery in cardamom Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Cinnamon, commonly known is a highly valued spice crop obtained from the inner bark of the tree Cinnamomum verum, belonging to the family Lauraceae. It is native to Sri Lanka and Southern India, and widely cultivated in Kerala Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. The spice is used globally in culinary, medicinal and aromatic industries. It thrives well in tropical humid climates with well-drained loamy soils and is generally propagated by seeds or cuttings. Though relatively hardy, cinnamon can be affected by a few key pests, especially when grown in monoculture or under poor management. Biology: There are two adult forms clytia and dissimilis. The clytia are blackish brown wings with a series of arrowhead shaped white spots on the outer margin, and the dissimilis are black winged with elongated white spots and a series of marginal arrowhead shaped spots. Adults lay spherical, waxy looking, and orange-yellow colored egg singly on the upper and lower surfaces of young leaves. The emerging larva resembles bird droppings (defensive mimicry) at the initial stages. The fully-grown larvae are pale yellow with dark stripes on the sides. There are five larval instars, and the larval period lasts for 11–17 days. The elongated, brownish-black pupa is joined to the host plant’s stem by silky supports at the rear end. The pupal stage is 11–13 days long. The life cycle is completed in 24-36 days (Singh et al., 1978).

Distribution: India, China, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand Host: Turmeric, ginger, cardamom, castor, guava, mango, cocoa etc. Biology: Adult moths are yellowish medium-sized moths. Wings are pale yellowish with black spots on the wings. The female moth lays round yellowish eggs singly or in groups on the tender part of the plant. Larva is long, pale greenish with a pinkish tint dorsally, head and pro-thoracic shield brown in color, body covered with minute hair. Pupation takes place in a loose silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel (Chong et al., 1991) Nature of damage and symptoms • Yellowing and drying of leaves of infested pseudostems • Presence of a bore-hole on the pseudostem through which frass is extruded • Withering and yellowing finally cause death of the central shoot (dead heart) (Devasahayam et al., 2010 and Chong et al., 1991) Management • Pruning and destruction of infected plant parts • Application of neem oil 1%

In India, jasmine is one of the oldest traditional flowers cultivated. It is infested by a number of insect and mite pests. The lepidopteran pests like bud borer, gallery worm, and leaf web-worm, are of significant importance. Sucking pests like eriophyid mite, lace wing bug, and thrips also causes minor damage to the crop. Dipteran pest like blossom midge also infests the crop. This chapter outlines brief descriptions of insect pests along with their hosts, life cycle, nature of damage, seasonal incidence and overall integrated pest management. 1. Bud worm: Hendecasis duplifascialis, Pyralidae, Lepidoptera Budworm is an important pest of jasmine. Its damage ranged from 30 to 70 per cent, which had a significant impact on flower quality. The quality of opened flowers was affected by the silken tunnels and excretions created by budworm larvae inside the bud clusters (Gunasekaran, 1989 and Kamala and Kennedy, 2016). The adult moths are small, pale white with wavy markings on wings and black patches on the wing margin. The moths lay eggs singly and glued on the unopened or immature buds, calyx and sometimes on the bud stalk, where the larvae eventually hatch and begin feeding.

Rose, one of the most popular cut flowers of the world known as the queen of flowers owing to its fragrance and aesthetic value. The rose has represented love, affection, innocence, and other noble traits for thousands of years. Roses are used for bouquets, flower arrangements, garlands, and worship. Apart from these, it is widely used in ayurvedic preparations, perfumes, soaps, cosmetics and also as flavouring agents in soft drinks and beverages. 1. Rose thrips: Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus, Thripidae, Thysanoptera Adults are blackish brown in colour while nymphs are reddish in colour. Both adult and nymph lacerates leaves from the under surface and also on flower and flower buds. Host range: Rose, grapes, Lagestoemia indica, Punica granatum. Biology: Adult thrips lay about 45-55 eggs. Eggs are inserted into the plant tissues. The nymphal period is about 2-3 weeks, and the adult period is about five days.

Anthurium is a famous decorative cut flower and pot plant in the Araceae (order Spathiflorae) genus because of its extended vase life and beautiful, long-lasting inflorescences. After orchids, anthurium sales are the second-highest in the world. Anthurium Thrips : Chaetanaphothrips orchidii Moulton Order : Thysanoptera Family : Thripidae Biology: Chaetanaphothrips orchidii are small, pale yellow thrips commonly found in unopened anthurium buds and flowers. These pests are also commonly found in orchids. Females reproduce parthogenetically and on an average 80-100 eggs are laid by each female (Hata and Hara, 1998). Eggs are inserted inside the flower bud or leaf sheath. Nymphs are light yellowish in colour and are similar to the adults. Pupation takes place beneath the host plant in the soil or growing media. The entire life cycle lasts approximately 28 to 32 days but can extend up to 3 months, depending on the temperature. Increased temperatures and humidity, along with new growth of host plants, seem to promote thrips feeding and reproduction, resulting in heavier infestations and greater damage during the summer months

Orchids belong to the family Orchidaceae, one of the largest and most diverse families of flowering plants, with over 28,000 species and more than 100,000 hybrids worldwide. They are renowned for their exotic beauty, structural diversity, and ornamental value. Orchids, a diverse and prized group of ornamental plants, are sensitive to a variety of insect and mite pests. These pests affect orchids grown both under protected conditions (greenhouses, polyhouses) and in open environments. Distribution: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal, Assam, Sikkim, Maharashtra Biology: Eggs are laid under the female’s shell and may remain after death. Crawlers are mobile and settle to feed, secreting protective coverings. Females remain stationary; males, where present, are short-lived and winged. Multiple overlapping generations per year occur under warm, humid conditions. Crawlers are the most susceptible to control treatments (Smith et al., 2018).

Gladiolus is a genus comprising around 260 species of perennial flowering plants in the iris family (Iridaceae). Commonly known as "sword lilies," the name derives from their long, blade-like leaves—gladius being the Latin word for "sword." These plants grow from underground storage organs called corms and feature tall, unbranched stems that bear vibrant, trumpet-shaped flowers arranged in a single-sided spike. Their striking appearance makes them highly valued both in gardens and as cut flowers. Most gladiolus species are native to sub-Saharan Africa, particularly South Africa, though some are also found in Europe and Asia. The flowers come in a wide variety of colors, forms, and often display intricate patterns or ruffled edges. Each flower is bisexual and sits between green bracts, with its tepals forming a characteristic funnel-shaped corolla. Known for their bold inflorescences and extended vase life, gladiolus flowers are a popular choice in floral design and landscaping worldwide

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum spp.), popularly known as “mum” or “guldaudi”, is a major commercial ornamental plant grown for cut flowers, loose flowers, and garden display. Belonging to the family Asteraceae, it is valued for its vibrant colors, diverse flower shapes, and long vase life. Chrysanthemum is attacked by several insect and mite pests, affecting both foliage and floral quality, leading to reduced aesthetic and commercial value. Distribution: Widely distributed in India wherever chrysanthemum and sunflower are grown. Biology: The eggs are laid singly on the upper surface of leaves, obliquely inserted into the tissue, with opercula appearing as whitish or brown dots. The incubation period for the eggs lasts about 5 to 7 weeks. Following hatching, the nymphs undergo hemimetabolous development (no true pupal stage). The nymphal period spans 2 to 3 weeks, during which the nymphs moult five times before reaching adulthood. Adult insects are approximately 4 mm long, with blackish bodies and lace-like transparent wings (Rizkawati et al., 2023).

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) belonging to the family Caryophyllaceae is very remarkable as a cut flower crop all over the world. It is well known for its attractive flowers with fragrance and varying colors. In India, the area under its cultivation is 2190 ha with a production of 8940 tones. But its production is affected by a number of insect pests and spider mite. It is the two spotted spider mite or red spider mite which is considered as one of the most serious pests of carnation. High temperatures and low relative humidity favor the multiplication of these mites. These mites are found to be persisting throughout the year under polyhouse conditions. Host range Citrus, grapes, apples, pears, tomatoes, okra, potatoes, eggplant, beans, cucumbers, peppers, roses, jasmine, tea, coffee etc.

Lily (Lilium spp.) is a high-value bulbous ornamental plant prized for its large, attractive, and often fragrant flowers. Belonging to the family Liliaceae, lilies are widely grown for cut flowers, landscape decoration, and potted plant markets. Despite its beauty, lily cultivation is often challenged by several insect and mite pests that reduce aesthetic quality, market value, and bulb health. Biology: Eggs are laid in clusters or singly on the undersides of lily leaves. They are yellowish to pale white, round, and smooth. Incubation lasts for about 3–6 days, depending on temperature and humidity. There are typically 5–6 larval instars. Newly hatched larvae are small and yellowish, later turning bright orange-red with black bands and spots. Caterpillars feed gregariously at first, skeletonizing leaves, then disperse to bore into stems or bulbs in later stages. The larval stage lasts for about 12–20 days. Pupation occurs in the soil, where larvae form a silken cocoon often mixed with soil particles. The pupal stage lasts 7–14 days. Pupae are reddish-brown and cylindrical. The adult is a medium-sized, metallic blue-black moth with bright yellow bands on the forewings and orange markings on the thorax. Adults are nocturnal and feed on nectar. Adult lifespan is around 4–6 days, during which female mate and lay eggs (Sathe, 2015).

Turfgrass refers to a group of grass species cultivated to form a dense, uniform ground cover, primarily used in lawns, golf courses, sports fields, parks, and landscape areas. Turfgrass serves both aesthetic and functional purposes, including erosion control, temperature regulation, and dust suppression. Turfgrass ecosystems provide a favorable habitat for various insect pests and mites that affect roots, stems, and leaves, compromising turf quality, appearance, and playability. Distribution: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, and other regions, Mythimna separata (oriental armyworm), is more prevalent in the northern and eastern states. Biology: Female moths lay eggs in clusters, often between leaf sheaths and blades, especially on dry grass. The eggs are initially pale yellow and darken before hatching. The larvae, also known as armyworms, go through several instars, feeding on grass blades.