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Ornamental plant systematics has lacked an appropriate text, especially at the undergraduate and postgraduate level. Currently, students search various voluminous reference books for basic and advanced studies. The aim of this book is to provide a general overview of ornamental plant taxonomy in an effective manner- a simplified but factual account. There are about 2,45,000 species of flowering plants on earth and these have been grouped into 197-430 families, depending on the authority concerned. However, a basic knowledge of angiosperms can be acquired by a study of selected group of families. We have selected 33 families of flowering plants, prominent in India. The subject matter is divided into 55 chapters which are by and large independent so that the teacher may choose the desired sequence of topics. Chapters 1-3 discuss the traditional aspects of plant taxonomy including the history and classification. Chapters 4-6 discuss the methods, techniques and principles of plant collection and plant nomenclature. Chapter 7, 8, 9 deal with chemotaxonomy, palynotaxonomy and serotaxonomy. Chapter 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 expand on botanical libraries, biodiversity, botanical gardens, red data book and herbarium. Floral formulae and floral diagrams, from which it is generally possible to identify a family, are explained in Chapter 15. Description of important families is mentioned from Chapters 20 to 54.

Ornamental horticulture is the branch of horticulture concerned with cultivating plants of all kinds for show and to satisfy the eye rather than for food (Bailey, 1960). It includes floriculture, the culture of trees for shades, display and landscape gardening. Gill (1988) defined taxonomy as a study aimed at producing a system of classification of biological organisms, which best reflects the totality of their similarities and differences. According to him, there are three inter-related aspects of taxonomy namely: Identification, Nomenclature and Classification. Identification deals with the determination of a taxon as being identical or similar to another and already known organisms. Nomenclature on the other hand has to do with determination of the correct name for the organisms and is governed by International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. It permits only a single valid name for each plant. Classification is the placing of plants in groups or categories according to particular plan or system. The objectives of taxonomy are to provide: a convenient method of identifying, naming and describing plants, a classification which as far as possible express the natural relationships of organisms, detect evolution at work, discovering its processes and interpreting its results, an inventory of plant resources-local, regional and continental and to provide an integrating and unifying role in the training of biology.

The concept of Centers of Origin given by Russian scientist N.I. Vavilov (1935) is based on his studies of vast collection of plants at the Institute of Plant  Industry, Leningrad. According to him, crop plants evolved from wild species in the areas showing great diversity and termed them as primary Centers of Origin; but in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although they did not originate their, such areas are known as secondary center of origin of these species. He identified 8 primary centers (Chinese, Indian, Inner Asiatic, Asia Minor, Mediterranean, Abyssinian, South Mexico, Central America and South America Andes Center) and three sub-centers (Indo-Malayan, Chilean and Brazilian-Paraguayan sub-center) of origin for crop plants. Basilevskaya (1960) first investigated the geographical origin of garden plants. Coats (1968) who first stressed out the ornamental herbs whereas Hui-Lin-Li (1974) wrote about the introduction of woody plants. According to Tay (2007) survey of thirty common flowers and their related species show a similar pattern of concentrated occurrence of species in certain geographic regions. Exploration and exploitation of gene centers need to be proceed with the systematic cooperation of taxonomists, geneticists and plant pathologists. The 17 centers of origin identified for different flower and ornamental crops are given (Table 2.1)

3.1. History and Development of Plant Classification The botanical term “Angiosperm”, from the Ancient Greek ‘angeíon’ (receptacle, vessel) and seed, was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizocarpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. Its use with any approach to its modern scope only became possible after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name gymnosperms. From that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia

This deals with the description, identification and naming of plants, and their classification into different groups according to their resemblances and differences, mainly in their morphological characteristics. So far as angiosperms or higher ‘flowering plants’ are concerned, it has been estimated that over 199,000 species are already known to us, and that thousands mor have yet to be discovered and recorded. The object of systematic botany or taxonomy is to describe, name and classify plants in such a manner that their relationship with regard to their descent from a common ancestry may be brought out. The ultimate object of classification is to arrange plants in such a way as to give us an idea of their phylogenetic relationships, i.e. the sequence of their origin and evolution from simpler, earlier and more primitive types to more complex, recent and advanced types during different periods. The earlier classification of plants were based on their economic uses, e.g. medicinal plants, cereals, fibre yielding plants, oil yielding plants, etc. or on gross structural resemblances, e.g. herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers, etc. These classifications were incomplete and fragmentary as plants that did not fit into such classifications or were of no economic value were usually ignored. Therefore, an ideal system of classification should not only indicate the actual genetic relationship but should also be reasonably convenient for practical purposes.

5.1 Fundamentals of Plant Nomenclature (A) Plant Nomenclature 5.1.1 Definitions Assignment of definite names to plants is called nomenclature. In the present botanical world, the nomenclature involves the principles governed by rules formulated and adopted by International Botanical Congresses. The rules developed by IBC are listed formally in a code called International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Voss et al., 1983), abbreviated as ICBN. The major goal of ICBN is to provide one correct name for each taxon. Taxa (singular, taxon) are the taxonomic groups of any rank. The ascending hierarachy of taxa include species, genus, family, order, class and division. 5.1.2 Who is a Nomenclaturist? A nomenclaturist is a taxonomist who assigns names to new taxa, determines the right names for old taxa according to the rules of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and finalizes the right name for a specimen according to an established system of classification.

Plant collection and field preparation of specimens are the fundamental aspects of study, training and research in plant systematics. Herbarium specimens are the permanent records of plant species of a particular place at a given time. Therefore, the plants should be carefully collected, selected, and the herbarium specimens should be properly prepared and preserved. 6.1 Which Type of Specimens Should Be Collected? The points to be kept in mind during a plant collection are: 1. Collect entire, vigorously growing typical specimens. 2. Select such individuals that represent almost all phases of the natural population. 3. Avoid collecting insect-damaged specimens. 4. Collect underground parts (e.g. roots, bulbs, rhizomes, tubers, etc.) of herbaceous perennials. 5. Collect those specimens of flowering plants that contain flowers, fruits, and seeds, because keys are prepared mainly on the basis of these characters. 6. Specimens larger than the size of a single sheet, should be divided an pressed on a series of sheets. 7. Collect plants with the leaves intact as different kinds of foliage prove helpful in identification. 8. Collect the bark and wood samples of the woody plants. 9. Avoid collecting rare or uncommon plants. Never collect the only plant of a species at a locality.

7.1 What is Chemotaxonomy? The approach of taxonomy in which chemical features of plants are used in developing classifications or in solving taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy, chemosystematics, chemical taxonomy, chemical plant taxonomy or plant chemotaxonomy. Some of the basic chemical features or evidentiary characters include alkaloids, flavonoids, carotenoids, polysaccharides, terpenoids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds, etc. The chemical evidences are useful in establishing relationships among taxa is exemplified (Cronquist, 1980) by the (i) Presence of aromatic plants in Juglandales, (ii) Production of betalains and not anthocyanins by the members of caryophyllales, (iii) Presence of highly aromatic compounds in the members of Lamiaceae, (iv) Presence of alkaloids in Solanaceae, and (v) Presence of tanniferous plants in Sapindaceae. 7.2 Purpose of Chemotaxonomy Chemotaxonomy has been used at all levels of the hierarchy of classification starting from the rank of ‘variety’ up to the rank of ‘division’ in plants. Moreover, chemical evidences have been used in all the groups of the plant kingdom starting from simple organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, up to the most highly advanced and specialized groups of angiosperms. These evidences are used in the classification of plants with two main purposes, (i) To develop such taxonomic characters which may improve the existing systems of plant classification and (ii) To develop the present day knowledge of phylogeny or evolutionary relationships of plants.

In flowering plants, each anther has four numbers of pollen sacs. Two anther lobes contain 4 pollen sacs in which pollen grains are produced. Pollen grains develop from the diploid microspore mother cells in pollen sacs of anthers. Thus, palynology alynology is the science of pollen and spore morphology and its applications. It is derived from the Greek word ‘palynein’ meaning ‘to scatter’. Morphological and comparative studies in palynology may solve intricate taxonomic problems. Pollen characters are useful in solving several complicated problems of interrelationships between various taxa and assessment of their status in the classification (Zhigila et al., 2018). Pollen grains are in the binucleate stage at the time of pollination. Wodehouse (1935) and Erdtman (1943, 1952, 1954, 1963 & 1969) made the most remarkable contribution in the field of pollen morphology. The significance of pollen attributes in taxonomy has been realized during the last three decade Erdtman (1952); Wagenitz (1976); Stix (1960), and Nair (1974). Dr. Parmeshwaran Krishnan Kutty Nair, fondly referred to as P. K. K. Nair (Fig. 8.1) and considered as the father of Indian palynology. Palynological renaissance, which started in 1952 with the contributions of Erdtman (1952) and Faegri and Iversen (1950), grew with the scientific activities of Nair and took a concrete shape in 1964 when he conveyed a symposium at NBRI, Lucknow.

The application or utility of serology in solving taxonomic problems is called serotaxonomy or systematic serology. The study of antigen-antibody reactions is called serology. It had its origin towards the end of 20th century with the discovery of serological reactions and development of the discipline of immunology. The substance capable of stimulating the formation of an antibody is called antigen. A highly specific protein molecule produced by plasma cells in the immune system is called antibody. The antibodies combine chemically with specific kinds of antigens. Proteins are the useful carriers of taxonomic information and are most widely used antigens in serotaxonomy. Serology is Useful in The Following Ways 1. It expresses similarities and dissimilarities amongst different taxa, and these data are helpful in taxonomy. It determines the degree of similarity between species, genera, families, etc. by comparing the reactions of antigens from various plant taxa with antibodies raised against the antigen of a given taxon. 2. It helps in comparing non-morphological characteristics, the knowledge of which is useful in taxonomy. 3. Single proteins from different plant taxa are also compared by serology techniques.

A botanical and horticultural library is a library specializing in the preservation and collection of literature and materials about plants. Botanical libraries are like special libraries are specialized information resources tailored to the unique needs of a particular organization, profession, or subject area. A botanical library is a specialized resource center dedicated to the study of plants and plant science. It typically houses a vast collection of books, journals, and other materials related to botany, horticulture, plant biology, and related fields. The mission of many botanical and horticultural libraries is to make accessible and available to those who use it the information on this topic. Botanical and horticultural libraries can be found in arboretums, botanical gardens, research institutions, horticultural societies, conservatories, governmental offices, colleges, and universities as part of a larger university library. The collections within these types of libraries cover such topics as flowers, grasses, trees, fungi, aquatic plants, weeds, algae, pests, and fertilizers. The typical collection is composed of books, periodicals, and photo collections. The types of materials depend on the types of patrons. A public botanical garden library may contain books for children, nursery catalogs, seed catalogs, popular how-to publications, movies, and various other media resources. At an academic library, there may be such archived materials, such as historical letters, autographs of famous botanists, plant lists, field notes, and reports of botanic expeditions. These libraries might include:

Biodiversity in flora and fauna is the wealth of any nation. Billions of genes with considerable value are habitated in the bioreserves designated. Genetic resources are the backbone of crop improvement in horticulture. Term ‘genetic resources’ was coined by Sir Otto Frankelin 1967 to highlight germplasm as natural resource for improvement of crop plants. The Consortiumof International Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR) established in 1971 by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is a consultative group to support a network of 16 international agricultural research centres. It controls world’s largest collection of genetic resources of more than 6 lakhs of accessions of over 3,000 crops, forage and pasture species (both cultivated & wild). International Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR, 1974 now Biodiversity International) situated at Rome, Italy had become the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) in October, 1991 for collection, evaluation & conservation of germplasm for future use. IPGRI began independent operation as one of the Centres of CGIAR in 1994. Today, Biodiversity International is the only global research-for-development organization that investigates the conservation and use of agricultural and forest bio-diversity. It is in the forefront of assisting member countries in identifying genetic resources for nutritional and food security without hampering the fragile ecosystem. Biodiversity of given region is assessed in terms of species richness. It boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play. Plant Generic Resource (PGR) is fundamental to crop improvement programme and the key to establish future food and nutritional security. The 1st plant genetic resources centre of the world was situated at Leningrad, Russia. Later in McNeely et al. (1990) categorized India as one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world and paved the way for its placement on the world’s conservation map. Myers (2000) identified global bio-diversity hotspots and North East parts of India are the 2nd largest and next only to Mediterranean basin among the 25 identified globally.

12.1 What are Botanical Gardens? Botanical gardens are the institutions that maintain the living plant collections of different varieties of plants, including the ornamental and cultivated ones, wild, medicinal, of economic importance, of various geographical regions, of special interest, etc. They are of value not only to the botanists, horticulturists and foresters but also to the millions of tourists A big botanical garden contains plant species from several corners of the globe. It also includes green houses, a library, a herbarium, research laboratories, and several miscellaneous resources including photographs, paintings, illustrations, reprints, note books, and specimens of several types. It is, therefore, not merely a garden but a botanical institution. Modern botanical gardens serve as centres for documentation, research, reference, data storage, education, conservation, and several other biological facilities to mankind.At present, there are over 600 botanical gardens in the world.

The Red Data Book is a public document that is created for recording endangered and rare species of plants, animals, fungi as well as some local subspecies that are present in a particular region. It helps us in providing complete information for research, studies and also for monitoring the programs on rare and endangered species and their habitats. Many nations of the world have prepared Red Data Books for their biological resources. Some Red Data Books include both plants and animals whereas, generally the plants are dealt separately from animals. This book is mainly created to identify and protect those species which are on the verge of extinction (“Extinction is the process of evolution that leads to the disappearance of a population or species”). Whereas red lists of threatened plants are being highly developed for wild plants and even replaced by green lists (Imboden, 1989) and blue lists (Gigon et al., 2000), ornamental plants still lack similar lists. 13.1 Brief History The name of this book has its origins in Russia, it was originally known as the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation or the RDBRF. The book was based on research conducted between 1961 and 1964 by biologists in Russia. Hence, it is also called the Russian Red Data Book.

14.1 Herbarium and Its Limitations A collection of dried and pressed plants arranged according to a classification system and available for study or reference is known as herbarium (plural, herbaria), a name first applied by Linnaeus. Plant specimens are usually mounted on a sheet of high quality paper. Properly dried, pressed and identified plant specimens are placed in thin paper folders (species covers) which are kept together in thicker paper folders (genus covers), and finally they are incorporated into the herbarium cupboards in their proper position. Some fleshy members (e.g. Cactaceae) are preserved in liquid preservatives instead of being pressed and dried. Bulky plant parts (e.g. dry fruits, cones of several gymnosperms, etc.) are dried without pressing and are stored in special bags. A herbarium may contain a few hundred locally collected plant specimens kept in a small place, or it may contain millions of them collected from different parts of the world and housed in a very big building. Herbaria in different countries remain associated with colleges, universities, scientific societies, research institutes, botanical gardens or flora of a district, state, country, continent or several continents. There are also private herbaria.

A floral formula is a numerical representation of various parts of the flower. Such notations use numbers, letters and various symbols to convey significant information in a compact form. They may represent the floral form of a particular species, or may be generalized to characterize higher taxa, usually giving ranges of numbers of organs. It also depicts the symmetry, interrelationship of various floral parts, unisexuality as well as bisexuality in the flower. Floral formulae were developed at the beginning of the 19th century (Prenner et al., 2010). The first authors using them were Cassel (1820) who first devised lists of integers to denote numbers of parts in named whorls; and Martius (1828). Grisebach (1854) used 4-integer series to represent the 4 whorls of floral parts in his textbook to describe characteristics of floral families, stating numbers of different organs separated by commas and highlighting fusion. Sachs (1873) used them together with floral diagrams, he noted their advantage of being composed of “ordinary typeface”.

Collection and conservation of genetic resources in horticultural crops is very much essential in regions where local seed sources are still used in genetic enhancement and cultivar production. Domesticated crops grow well adapted to both tropical and temperate regions. In particular, if the crop is domesticated over centuries to be grown in different latitudes, the genetic diversity estimates are essential for a breeder to develop location specific cultivars. Genetic ulnerability, erosion and extinction of some wild progenitors and species has been altered, warranting the need for ex situ conservation measures. The material is conserved in various forms, ranging from botanical gardens, clonal and seed populations, vegetative methods, in vitro active repositories, pollen cryobanks and DNA banks. The objective, in genetic resource context, is to conserve for prolonged duration with minimal loss of viability and genetic diversity. Most ex situ conservation methods are technology dependent. Seed and pollen banks are dependent in refrigeration technology and cryogenic technology. The conservation of plant genetic resources in ornamental species is generally driven by demand, focusing on preserving a wide range of genetic diversity. This diversity can include individual genes and coadapted gene complexes at the micro level, as well as entire genotypes, elite clones, and plant populationsat the macro level. The distribution of genetic diversity (GD) in plant species  is predominantly dependent on the reproductive mechanisms they adopt and the mode of inheritance of the characters targeted for collection. The main reasons for collection and conservation genetic resources of an ornamental species gene pool in a given ecosystem are:

Taxonomy, also known as systematics, is the study of classifying organisms into logically related groups. Historically, taxonomy was performed by examining physical characteristics of organisms and classifying species based on the most commonly held traits. Unfortunately, this method of classifying plants and animals assumes that because they share physical characteristics, they must have shared ancestors. Markers are used over the years for classification of plants. Markers are any trait(s) of an organism that can be identified with confidence and relative ease, and can be followed in a mapping population. They can be defined as heritable entities associated with the economically important trait under the control of polygenes. Molecular markers are any kind of molecule indicating existence of a chemical or a physical process. Molecular markers include biochemical constituents (e.g. secondary metabolites in plants) and macromolecules (e.g. proteins and deoxyribo-nucleic acid). These macromolecules show easily detectable differences among different strains of a species or among different species. The prerequisite for the improvement of any plant species are germplasm collection and its characterization to find out the diversity among the accessions. Characterization can be done by several ways which include morphological, enzymatic and genetical methods. The best way to assess the diversity is based on DNA markers which allow differentiation among genotypes without any environmental influences. These markers have a great potential to identify genetic diversity within and among accessions which help in successful implementation of pre-breeding approaches. Molecular markers are considered the best tools for determining genetic relationships diversity as they are unlimited in number, show high polymorphism, provides more reliable information, detect more variation than morphological and biochemical markers; and are stage independent, not affected by environment and simply inherited. Molecular markers are ‘tags’ that can be used to identify specific genes and locate them in relation to other genes. They help in ensuing a desired beneficial trait to be maintained or an undesirable trait to be eliminated.

The science that includes classification, nomenclature and identification of plants is called plant taxonomy. Taxa (Sing. Taxon):A general term for taxonomic classification, irrespective of rank. 18.1 Plant Types (habit and habitat) 1. Annual: A plant that completes its entire life cycle, from seed to reproduction to death, in one single year. 2. Biennial: A plant that completes its entire life cycle in two years. 3. Perennial: A plant that grows and reproduces for many years. 4. Monocarpic: plants that flower and set seeds once during its lifetime. They flower only after attaining maturity. They flower gregariously in a single season e.g. Bamboo and Kurinjis. 5. Polycarpic: Plants that flower and set seeds many times during its lifetime. 6. Aquatic: Organisms growing in water. 7. Shrub: A much branched, small, woody perennial plant with several branches from ground level upwards. 8. Tree: A tall, woody, perennial plant with a single trunk which usually bears branches.

Agriculture including forestry, range management and sustenance of plant biodiversity have been the core of Indian civilization that dates back to several millenniums. The enormous plant diversity arising due to the varie soil, environment and altitude variations that India enjoys has resulted in the evolution of various crop species and varieties suiting to different domestic and commercial needs. The Gene Fund created under the law is designed to encourage, protect, promote, and utilize the plant biodiversity for plant breeding activity in perpetuity. The Gene Fund in turn gets nourished by the flow of annual fee arising out of the sale of seed of the registered varieties. The keepers (services of the men and women; individuals and communities) of plant variation in the agrobiodiversity hotspots are to be beneficiaries of the gene fund. National Gene Fund shall be used for supporting and rewarding farmers and farming communities, who are engaged in conservation and improvement of genetic resources of economic plants and their wild relatives, particularly from the areas identified as hotspots of agrobiodiversity. An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.

A family of over 250 genera and 2,500 species, Acanthaceae are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in Mediterranean region, Australia and USA. Central America, Brazil, Africa and Indo-Malaysia are the 4 chief centres of distribution. About 70 genera and over 340 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species are Justicia (300), Strobilanthes (250), Barleria (230), Thunbergia (200), Aphelandra (200), Decliptera (150), Blepharis (100), Staurogyne (80), Mendoncia (60), Crossandra (60) and Acanthus (50). Selected Indian Genera Acanthus, Adhatoda, Barleria, Eranthemum, Justicia, Peristrophe, Ruellia, Thunbergia. Economic Importance 1. Ornamental plants include Aphelandra aurantiaca, Barleria cristata, B. gibsoni, Beloperone guttata (shrimp plant), Crossandra infundibuliformis, Eranthemum bicolor, E. nervosum, Fittonia gigantea, Jacobinia carnea, Justicia gendarussa, Ruellia brittoniana, Thunbergia coccinia, T. erecta, T. fragrans and T. grandiflora.

A family of about 175 genera and 2,500 species, Amaranthaceae are mostly distributed in tropical but also in temperate regions. About 18 genera and over 50 species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera with the number of their approximately reported species and common names are Alternanthera (200, alligator weed), Gomphrena (100, globe amaranth), Iresine (80, gizzard plant), Amaranths (60, pigweed) and Celosia (60, cock’s comb). Gomphrenas are 30-40 cm tall, bushy with erect stems, hairy, light green with oblong-ovate leaves tapering towards the base. Round button like or spherical flower head is a cylindrical spike 1-2 cm long and 1 cm in diameter and may be terminal and/or axillary, and are born on long, thin stems above the foliage. Each flower head has tiny, conspicuous, papery, colourful bracts which enclose the inconspicuous true flowers. Bracts ovate, three mm long, apex acuminate, bracteoles 4.5-5.5 mm long. Ovary is sub-globose with two stigmas. Seed is brown, lustrous, 1.5 mm long (Wagner et al., 1999). It has both C3 and C4 pathway. Selected Indian Genera Achyranthes, Alternanthera, Amaranths, Celosia, Digera, Gomphrena and Pupalia.

A family of about 73 genera and over 1,600 species (Hickey and King, 1988),Amaryllidaceae are usually distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions. About 9 genera and over 60 species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with the number of their world over reported species are Crinum (110), Hippeastrum (75), Narcissus (60), Hymenocallis (50), Haemanthus (50), Cyrtanthus (47), Zephyranthes (40), Galanthus (20), Polianthes (15), and Pancratium (15). Hippeastrum (popular name Amaryllis) is one of the most beautiful bulbous ornamental plants grown in the world. It is very suitable for planting in pots, greenhouses, window gardens, flowering beds, rockeries, popular as cut flower, and useful in floral arrangements. Hippeastrum and Amaryllis are synonyms for ‘Trumpet lily’ or ‘Night Star lily’ in Indian gardens. In USA, A. belladonna is known as Callicore rosea sometimes as Hippeastrum equestre, and in South Africa as ‘March lily’, being a variable species. Plants of the genus A. belladonna are known as ‘Belladonna lily’, ‘Naked Lady’ or ‘Amarillo’. Hippeastrum hybridum is popularly known as ‘Royal Dutch’ amaryllis or ‘Dutch’ amaryllis hybrids. Hippeastrum takes its name from the Hippeus meaning ‘a knight rider’ or horse and ‘astron’ meaning a star, due to some fancied resemblance in H. equestre, perhaps of the equitant leaves and the star shaped corolla opening.

A family of about 400 genera and 4,555 species of mostly tropical and subtropical distribution, but a few species distributed also in temperature regions. About 30 genera and over 60 species of Apocynaceae have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately reported species in bracket are Rauvolfia (100), Tabernaemontana (100), Parsonsia (100), Aspidosperma (80), Prestonia (65), Strophanthus (60), Apocynum (7), Plumeria (6) and Catharanthus (5). Some plants are of medicinal value and some are highly ornamental. Periwinkle (syn. Vinca) is grown as an ornamental bedding plant in gardens and parks and is known for its colourful flowers and ever-blooming nature. In India, it is commonly known as sada bahar, sada phuli, and barmasi. It is one of the top ten best selling plant in USA. Its importance has increased owing to medicinal properties and as a model species for study of plant’s secondary metabolism. The plant contains more than 70 different alkaloids in leaves and roots which contribute to anti-cancerous (vincristine and vinblastine) and antihypertensive (ajamalicine) properties, respectively.

A family of 140 genera and over 4,075 species, Araceae are distributed mostly in tropical and some also in temperate regions of the world. About 25 genera and over 140 species have been reported from India, chiefly from western and southern parts. Some larger genera along with the number of their worldover reported species are Anthurium (500), Philodendron (275), Arisaema (150), Amorphophallus (100), Rhaphidophora (100), Pothos (75), Alocasia (70), Monstera (50), Arum (15), Colocasia (8), Acorus (2) and Pistia (1). Colocasia (Colocasia antiquorum) and ‘money plant’ (Pothos aureus) are two famous plants of Araceae. Anthurium is a beautiful group of tropical aroids. It is cultivated globally for its attractive flowers and foliage. The flowering stalks have a long vase life and add an ethnic beauty to any floral decoration. Anthurium also called as ‘Flamingo flower’ or ‘Boy flower’, both referring to the structure of the spathe, and spadix. ‘Anthra’ is a worldwide knowledge center for the cultivation of anthurium, based on Holland and Germany. ‘Anthura’ performs activities in the field of research and development breeding, tissue culture technology, training and publishing cultivation know- how. ‘Anthura’ collaborates with research stations and test locations in Thailand, China, USA, Japan and India.

Asteraceae or Compositae is one of the largest families of flowering plants, represented by about 1,707 genera and over 23,600 species which are worldwide in distribution. Radford (1986) has mentioned the number of genera to be ‘One thousand to 2000’. About 140 of its genera and over 700 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera include Senecio (2,000+), Eupatorium (1,200), Vernonia (1,000), Hieracium (1,000), Centaurea (600), Aster (500), Helichrysum (500), Cousinia (400), Artemisia (400), Baccharis (400), Mikania (250), Bidens (230), Crepis (200), Inula (200), Erigron (200), Chrysanthemum (160), Cirsium (150), Ligularia (150), Helianthus (110), Lactuca (100), Hypochoeris (100) and Carduus (100). In the Chrysanthemum genus, the modern autumn flowering perennial Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat is most important. The name of C. morifolium Ramat has been changed to Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev (Anderson, 1987; Heywood and Humphries, 1977 and Kitamura, 1978). Chrysanthemum (D.x grandiflora) is an internationally recognized floriculture crop. It ranks second among commercial flowers in the international market. It is known as ‘Queen of East’ in Japan while in USA, it is considered as the ‘Queen of the fall flowers’. Flowers are in great demand in landascape, for making garland, wreath, veni and religious offerings. Pot chrysanthemums are commonly known as ‘mums’ and large flowered cultivars are used as potted plants.

Represented by about 120 genera and over 800 species. Bignoniaceae are distributed mainly in tropical and sub-tropical, and a few in temperate regions. About 15 genera and 40 species are found in India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximate number of worldover reported species are Tabebuia (100), Arraabidaea (70), Jacaranda (50), Anemopaegma (30), Tecoma (16), Catalpa (11) and Crescentia (5). Selected Indian Genera Jacaranda, Kigelia, Millingtonia, Tecoma, Heterophragma, Oroxylum and Dolichandrone. Economic Importance 1. Ornamental plants of the family include handsome trees (Catalpa bignonioides, Haplophragma adenophyllum, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, (Fig. 26.1), Kigelia pinnata, Millingtonia hortensis, Spathodea campanulata and Tabebuia spectabilis), shrubs (Bignonia unguis-cati), beautiful tendril-climbers (Adenocalymna alliaceum, Bignonia venusta syn. Pyrostegia venusta), aerial rootlet climbers (Campis grandiflora and C. radicans) and herbaceous genus Incarvillea.

Cacti are eulogized as ‘Plants of 21st century’. They have gained popularity due to many exciting shapes, blooms, ease of culture and long life without least care. Cacti are categorized as fleshy stem succulent with photo-synthetically active stem. Good for indoor decoration in pot, outdoor decoration, landscaping, public garden, rock garden, etc. The family Cactaceae includes approximately 131 genera and 1,750 species. But different authors mention the number of genera differently between 30 to 200. Members are distributed chiefly in semi-desert or drier regions of tropical and sub-tropical America, and also in Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. Mainly the Cactaceae are the succulents of New World. Main species of Old World is Rhipsalis. Some of the larger genera along with their number of reported species are Mammillaria (200-300), Opuntia (250), Echinocereus (75), Rhipsalis (60), Cereus (50), Cephalcereus (48), Echinopsis (35), Epiphyllum (21) and Pereskia (20). The classification of the family Cactaceae remains uncertain as of August 2023. Since the mid-1990s, the system produced by the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG) of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study has been used as the basis of many published classifications. Hunt (2006) recognized Cactaceae family has 4 sub-families viz. Pereskioideae (the leaf cactus, 20 spp.), Opuntioideae (300 spp.), Cactoideae (1,000 spp.) and Maihuenioideae (2 spp.). Three tribes: Pereskieae, Opuntieae, Cereae. Tribe Cereae has 8 sub-tribes: Cereanae, Hylocereanae, Echinocereanae, Echiocactanae, Cactanae, Coryphanthanae, Epiphyelanae, Rhipsolidanae. The cacti of sub-tribe ‘Echinocereanae’ are commonly known as ‘Hedgehogs’.

It is represented by about 100 genera and over 2,200 species which are either annual or perennial, Caryophyllaceae are cosmopolitan in distribution, and mainly found in the north temperate or warm temperate regions of the world. Over 20 genera and about 100 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their common names and number of species in parenthesis include Silene (catchfly, 500), Dianthus (carnation, 300), Arenaria (sandwort, 250), Gypsophila (baby’s breath, 125), Stellaria (chickweed, 100), Cerastium (mouse-ear chickweed, 100), Drymaria (50), Spergula (40), Saponaria (30), etc. Carnation, commonly named as ‘Divine flower’, ‘Clove pink’, and ‘Gilly flower’, is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops of the world. It is excellent for cut flowers, bedding, pots, edging and rock gardens due to its exquisite shape, wide range of colours, light weight and good vase life. In Europe and USA, perpetual carnation is cultivated on large scale in greenhouses for production of cut flowers. In terrain parts of France and Holland, carnation flowers are used for perfume extraction and only light coloured flowers are useful for this purpose. Description of Family 1. General habit: Mostly annual or perennial herbs, rarely suffrutescent shrubs; arctic forms are reduced and possess caespitose habit. 2. Stem: Herbaceous; rarely with a basal woody part; nodes swollen; branching usually dichotomous but sometimes monopodial.

It is a monotypic or unigeneric family represented by four genera containing about 91 species distributed mainly in north-east Australia and also in Fiji, New Caledonia, Malaysia and Mascarene islands. Only one species (Casuarina equisetifolia) occurs in India, and this is the most common species of the world. Selected Genera Casuarina, Gymnostoma, Allocasuarina, Ceuthostoma. Economic Importance Casuarina is important mainly as timber tree. The wood of C. equisetifolia, C. cunningbamia and C. stricta is used for furniture, for fuel and also for basket making. The bark of C. suberosa and C. stricta is utilized for tanning. C. equisetifolia is usually grown as an ornamental and also in order to reclaim sandy dunes in India and several countries.

Family Combretaceae contains about 20 genera and 600 species distributed mainly in the tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world (Rahate et al., 2019). Eight genera and about 45 species of this family have been reported from India, chiefly from Assam and West Bengal. Combretum and Terminalia are two largest genera of the family. Lumnitzera littoria is found as a mangrove plant in Sundanban and other tidal forests of India. Terminalia bellirica is tall tree and leaves clustered near ends of branches. Flowers are small, pale green, arise in simple spikes. Fruit is ovoid, 3 cm long, brownish & densely covered with hairs and contains 5-17 per cent tannins. Unripe fruit is used as astringent but ripe fruit is purgative. Fruit powder is used as tonic & laxative and useful in piles, leprosy, dropsy and fever. Fruit of T. chebula is astringent and laxative. Roasted fruits are used to treat cough, chronic ulcer, wounds & scalds, used in dyeing and tanning purposes, fruit decoction is used in bleeding and ulceration of gums Description of Family 1. General habit: A family of exclusively arborescent taxa, consisting of tall trees or woody twiners of lianas, such as Combretum and Quisqualis. 2. Stem: Solid with large mucilaginous sacs and abundant tannin. 3. Leaves: Simple, alternate or sometimes opposite (Quisqualis); exstipulate; margin entire.

This cosmopolitan family of about 375 genera and over 4,060 species, occur chiefly in north temperate regions, especially in the Mediterranean region. About 50 genera and over 140 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their reported number of species from the world in parenthesis, include Draba (300), Cardamine (160), Lepidium (150), Alyssum (150), Arabis (120), Erysimum (100), Sisymbrium (90), Heliophila (75), Rorippa (70), Iberis (30) and Raphanus (8). Majority of Crucifers produce an abundance of vitamin C. Characteristic pungent odour of its members is because of sulphur compounds. Selected Indian Genera and Species • Vegetables: Several common vegetables of daily use belong to this family. Some of them are radish (Raphanus sativus), cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis), Brussel’s sprout (B. oleracea var. gemmifera), sengri (B. sativus var. caudatus), etc. • Oils: Fatty oil, used for cooking, pickles, bruning, massaging, etc. is obtained from the seeds of several species of this family. Mustard oil is obtained from several species of Brassica such as B. campestris var. sarson and B. campestris var. toria (Indian rape). Oil is also obtained from the seeds of B. juncea var. cuneifolia (Rai), B. alba (white mustard). The oil cake left after the extraction of oil, is a good cattle feed.

A family of over 322 genera and 8,900 species, Euphorbiaceae is closely related to Sterculiaceae of the Malvales through the various degrees of the union of stamens and the presence of the pistillode and staminode in the male and female flowers, respectively. They are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in Mediterranean region, Australia and USA. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their world over reported species are Euphorbia (2000), Croton (700), Phyllanthus (500), Acalypha (430), Japtropha (175), Manihot (170). Selected Indian Genera Acalypha, Codiaeum, Euphorbia, Hevea, Jatropha, Mallotus, Manihot, Phyllanthus, Poinsettia, Putranjiva, Ricinus. Economic Importance 1. Fruits of Emblica officinalis are rich in vitamins, medicinal and also used for tanning. 2. Garden croton (Codiaeum variegatum) with variegated leaves, poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Fig. 32.1, Fig. 32.3) with beautiful red bracts, Acalypha sanderiana, A. tricolor and Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Jew’s slipper), Putranjiva roxburghii (Child life tree) are used as ornamental purpose; Jatropha gossypifolia is commonly grown as hedge; Manihot esculenta (tapioca) yield valuable starchy food; Manihot utillissima (bitter cassava); Manihot alpe (sweet cassava); Manihot glaziovii yields ceara rubber; Hevea brasiliensis yields para rubber; fruits of Mallotus philippinensis yields a crimson powder used for dyeing silk, etc.

Geraniaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 830 species which are cosmopolitan in distribution and found widely in temperate and tropical regions. Only 3 genera and about 25 species have been reported from India, mainly from Himalayas. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately reported species in parenthesis include Geranium (430), Pelargonium (280), Erodium (80) and Monsonia (25). Well-known ‘geranium oil’ is distilled from Pelargonium odoratissinum. Pelargonium (syn. Geraniums, Stork bills) is an extremely popular garden plant and has considerable economic importance in the market of ornamental plants. Its genotypes and hybrids are grown in temperate regions. Its value as a potential essential oil yielding crop is also mentioned. Geranium oil is widely used in perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Oil has anti-microbial, and pesticidal activities. The genus Pelargonium comprises more than 280 species in 13 sections of which 33 have been originated in southern parts of South Africa (Van der Walt and Vorster, 1988). It has been reported that nearly 80 per cent diversity of Pelargoniums is centered in Cape Province if African continent (South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique). Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels, Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/ Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available on the world market. True geranium is a bushy, aromatic plant. The stem is cylindrical, woody at the base, pubescent, green when young and turning brown with age. The leaves are highly aromatic in nature. Flowers are regular and devoid of spur like appendages.

A family of about 66 genera and over 2,244 species, Iridaceae are distributed in both tropical and temperate regions with the chief centres of distribution in tropical America and South Africa. Chief areas of distribution in India are Kashmir, and Kumanon hills. Common species cultivated in Indian gardens include Belamcanda chinensis, Crocus sativus, C. biflorus, C. speciosa, Gladiolus primulinus, G. colvillei, Freesia refracta, Iris kumaonensis, I. germanica and I. foetidissima. Iridaceae are cultivated throughout the world for their beautiful flowers. Gladiolus ‘the queen of bulbous flowers’ is one of the most important bulbous ornamentals grown commercially in all parts of the world for its attractive flowers. It is very much liked for its majestic spikes containing attractive, elegant and delicate florets which open in sequence over a long duration and hence, has good keeping quality of cut spikes. These are extensively employed as cut flower in herbaceous borders, individual beds in the gardens, for exhibition, as pot plants for various kinds of interior decoration and for making bouquets. North American Gladiolus Council, Boston established in 1910 (www.gladworld.org), and New England Gladiolus Society (www.britglad. com), came into existence during post war era (1945-55), are actively involved in popularization and improvement of gladiolus in tune with flourishing cut flower trade in western countries.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary). Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary). Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

A family of about 15 genera and 705 species showing cosmopolitan distribution. About 35 genera and over 195 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with the number of their world over reported species are Smilax (350), Aloe (300), Asparagus (300), Dracaena (150). Ornithogalum (150), Haworthia (150), Tulipa (100), Fritillaria (85), Lilium (80), Colchicum (65), Sansevieria (60), Yucca (40), Asphodelus (12) and Ruscus (7). Lilium is a bulbous ornamental plant commonly known as lily. The flowers are associated with religious feasts and symbolism. In the language of flowers, the lily is the symbol of purity, and innocence. It is one of the sixth major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Lilium ranks 4th among cut flower trade in international market. Certain species of Lilium are edible, and valued for medicinal properties also. Tulip is one of the most important bulbous geophytes in the world and popular due to its beauty and economic value. It is the top rated flower bulb in the international cut flower market. Modern tulip cultivars, predominantly T. gesneriana, are grown for bulb production, cut flowers, flowering potted plants, and landscaping. The current commercial assortment still consists mainly of cultivars from T. gesneriana. The second group of cultivars, the Darwin hybrids consists has been obtained from interspecific crosses between cultivars T. gesneriana and genotypes of T. fosteriana. Tulipa suaveolens, a kind of tulip discovered wild in southern Europe, has played an important role in the evolution of the garden tulip (Bailey, 1963).

Named after a French botanist Pierre Magnol, Magnoliaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 300 species, mainly distributed in the warm temperature regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The species are common in eastern Asia and eastern North America, and found also in Brazil, West Indies, and Malaysia. Description of family 1) General habit: Deciduous or evergreen, often aromatic shrubs or trees; Liriodendron tulipifera reaches 20 to 65 m in height; Michelia and Magnolia are medium sized trees or shrubs; Schizandra is a climber. 2) Leaves: Alternate, large, simple, entire, petiolate, pinnately-veined; stipulate, stipules large, protect young buds and leave a circular scar on falling; stipules absent in Wintereae; oil glands present. 3) Inflorescence: Flowers usually solitary, either axillary or terminal; flowers crowded near the tips of the branches in Illicium. 4) Flowers: Large, showy, bracteate (Magnolia, Michelia) or ebracteate, pedicellate, bisexual but rarely unisexual flowers while other have bisexual flowers.

A family of about 244 genera and 4,225 species, Malvaceae are distributed widely in tropical and temperate regions. About 22 genera and 125 species of Malvaceae have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their common names and/or number of reported species in parenthesis, include Hibiscus (rose mallow, 300), Sida (200), Abutilon (Indian mallow, 100), Alcea (60), Malva (mallow, 40), Lavatera (25), Gossypium (cotton, 20) and Althaea (12). The family is recognized by Hibiscus rosasinensis (Rose of China) because of its beautiful large flowers and hundreds of its known cultivated varieties. Hibiscus commonly called as ‘Chinese hibiscus’ or ‘Rose of China’ or ‘Hawaiian hibiscus’ or ‘Blacking plant’ or ‘Shoe flower’ is a flowering plant of hot and warm climate, and hence, known as ‘Queen of Tropics’. Florida is the prominent hibiscus growing centre of the world. The commercial species have wide variety of uses including fibers, food, medicinal and ornamental, either as a potted plant, fence or hedge plant or as a landscape shrub. Ethno medicinal value of hibiscus is documented

A family of about 150 genera and 3,800-5650 species, distributed mainly in sub-tropical and tropical regions of the world. Family is particularly abundant in Australia where some Eucalyptus trees are world’s tallest angiosperms. Myrtaceae is represented in India by about 15 genera and over 170 species. Beautiful pinkish flowers of Myrtus communis are considered highly sacred among Greeks, Egyptians, Jews and Persians, and used in religious rites and ceremonies. Some of the larger genera of Myrtaceae along with their number of reported species include Eugenia (1000), Eucalyptus (500), Syzygium (500), Myrcia (500), Psidium (140), Myrtus (100) and Melaleuca (100). Eucalyptus spp. produce important components of medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. Economic parts are leaves and terminal buds-along with trunk. Lemon scented/ Tasmanian (E. globulus) is high in cineol content. Deodorant is manufactured besides utilization of oil for asthma, bronchitis, perfumery, etc. Phellandrene rich type, E. citridora (most widely grown in hill stations of southern parts of India). The source of citronellal and menthol from leaves and terminal buds is famous for perfumery industries.

This family of sub-class polypetalae is represented by only single genera and three species. Members are cosmopolitan in distribution, except in very cold regions, and are favorite plants for garden pools. Nelumbo lotus are the ‘sacred lotus’ plants of the family. Indian lotus, found commonly in shallow lakes and pods, is Nelumbo nucifera. Nelumbo, genus of aquatic angiosperms belong to monogeneric family Nelumbonaceae is represented by two elemental species N. nucifera and N. lutea. The 1st fossil record available with Pleistocene epoch of Kashmir.The NBRI, Lucknow acts as a biodiversity conservation centre. Among the few bulbous ornamentals which survive only in water, one of them is lotus.N.aureavallis, known from Eocene fossils from North Dakota, USA is an extinct species from USA. Nearly all parts are edible. Leaves are used for wrapping around other food before it is cooked. Stalks are sliced & added to salad. Flowers are cultivated for ornamental value, religious offerings, environment beautification, water purification, besides for food, Chinese traditional medicine & yield valuable perfume. Flowers recommended as cardiac tonic and used in curing diseases of liver, skin. Its dried and powdered rhizomes are used to cure piles. Due to its astringent qualities, rhizome is known for its hypoglycemic, anti-pyretic, anti-diarrheal, anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activity. It possesses anti-fungal activity against Aspergillus, Trichoderma, and Penicilium. Many traditional ancient medical texts report its use for skin conditions, notably ring worms & leprosy, sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and syphilis. Milky latex found in stems, leaves and flowers is used to fight bacterial infections. Lotus has been found to have 77% anti-oxidant activity. Swollen rhizome of vegetable lotus is used in culinary preparations. The roasted seeds are used as a substitute to coffee. Seeds are ground to obtain almond-flavoured flour. Seed pods (fresh or dried) are used in dry flower arrangement. Bhasinda is an underground stem i.e. rhizomes are edible as raw or cooked in northern parts of India.

A family of over 33 genera and 391 species, Nyctaginaceae are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in South America particularly Brazil, Asia, Ecuador, Peru, Columbia, Australia, Africa and New Zealand are the chief centers of distribution. Presently, bougainvilleas are popular ornamental plants in warm climates including India, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Australia, Mediterranean region, the Caribbean, Mexico, South Africa, and the United States in Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii, and southern Texas. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their world over reported species are Bougainvillea (300), Mirabilis (60) and Pisonia (50). The C3 physiology recorded directly in Bougainvillea, Mirabilis. Bougainvillea is a versatile and hardy climbing shrub commonly grown in Indian gardens. It is a short day plant. C3 and C4 photosynthesis is reported in bougainvillea cv. Mary Palmer. It is a fast growing garden plant admired for its brightly coloured bracts, profuse flowering round the year, wide adaptability to soil and climatic conditions, and easy growing. It is, grown as hedge, pergola, standard, pot plant, and bonsai for display. In city designs, newer roads, and flyovers are introduced with bougainvilleas as dividers. Bougainvilleas also have been utilized as a kind of folk medicine developed into dietary supplements as insulin substitute and for pollution tolerance. The insulin like compound, pinitol, was first isolated from leaves of B. spectabilis.

This family of sub-class polypetalae is represented by only 5 genera and over 70 species. Members are cosmopolitan in distribution, except in very cold regions, and are favorite plants for garden pools. Plants are mostly ornamental, few are medicinal or edible. Flowers of water lily are variously coloured and open just above the water surface in ponds while that of crow lily (Nuphar) are golden yellow and extend up and out of the water in the pond. Nymphaea nouchali is the Indian red water-lily. Victoria regia is a native of South America. Genus Nymphaea attained wide spread fame as ornamentals in Europe and North America in the early 19th century. Word ‘Nympha’ in Greek and in Roman mythology means ‘Nature-goddess’. Nymphacine is an alkaloid present in all parts except seeds and contain 47% starch and fatty oils. Flowers are used as cardiac tonic to relieve pains and cures diseases of liver and skin and rhizomes are used in tannin industry, seeds for culinary purposes and leaves as dining plates. Dried rhizome powder is used to cure piles. Among the few bulbous ornamentals which survive only in water, one of them is water lily. Water lilies constitute an important element in tropical aquatic ornamental horticulture because of their strikingly beautiful flowers with wide spectrum of colours. Its flowers are very formal in shape and rather more attractive than lotus. Many are fragrant and there is great variation even in size of the flowers and leaves. Unripe fruits of Nymphaea rubra are used as vegetables and flowering stalks as vegetables and salad. Rhizomes are used in tannin industry and seeds for culinary purposes. Leaves are used as dining plates. Nymphacine alkaloid is available in all parts of the plant except the seeds which are free from this alkaloid and contain 47 per cent starch and fatty oils. Rhizomes of N. stellata are edible and also used to relieve cardiac pains. Rhizomes of N. nouchali are used to cure dysentery and diarrhoea. The vegetable ‘kamal kakri’ is actually the rhizome of N. nouchali.

A family of approximately 29 genera and 600 species, Oleaceae are cosmopolitan but occur in great diversity in temperature and tropical Asia. Some of the largely represented genera of olive family and their approximately reported species are Jasminum (300), Chionanthus (125), Linociera (80), Fraxinus (70), Ligustrum (40), Syringa (30) and Olea (20). Genus Jasminum contains 90 species to be true in existence and use, range from landscape to hair adornments, and perfumes. It is native to Indo-Malayan region. Morphological variants from different species have been developed in different regions in India. Jasmines are one of the most important ornamental flowering plants, widely cultivated for their attractive and fragrant flowers. Jasmine has multiple uses like in the making of bouquets, garlands, decorating women’s hair as veni, beautifying pandals and marriage halls and the like, besides preparation of perfumes and cosmetics. Jasminum grandiflorum is highly priced for high grade perfumes throughout the world. Jasmine oil has a significant place as an ingredient in cosmetics, confectionary, ointments, disinfectants and detergents and in pharmaceutical beverages. The word ‘jasmine’ has been derived from a Persian name ‘Yasmun’ meaning fragrance.

Orchidaceae is one of the largest families of the flowering plants, represented by about 1,000 genera and 20,000 species which are cosmopolitan but primarily distributed in tropical areas. They are found in all parts of the world, even in the frozen areas of Alaska, the snow-covered areas of the Himalayas and sandy deserts of Australia and Africa. New Guinea has more orchids, native to the island, than any other part of the world. In Indian flora, this is the second largest family having 7% of the world’s orchid genetic diversity contributing 1,330 species in 186 genera distributed mainly in Eastern Himalayas, Western Ghats and Khasi hills. Indian orchid wealth serves as a foundation of world’s orchid industry. The North-Eastern hilly regions of India, Himalayas being the cradle, comprises eight states- Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura- is the abode of unique orchids. Many are now endangered due to man’s invasion and “burn and grow” type of shifting cultivation. Arunachal Pradesh alone accounts for 601 species, almost 52% of the total species known in India. Arunachal’s rich and colourful orchids find a place of pride. Arunachal Pradesh is called the ‘Orchid Paradise of India’. The entire orchid family with about 601 species in Arunachal Pradesh is classified into six sub-families, 17 tribes, 24 sub-tribes and 111 genera. Vanda is found as epiphyte on mango and other trees in the plains. Aerides is found in southern and northern parts of India, Burma, Malaya and Indonesia, Vanda spp. is common in India, Sri Lanka, South East Asia and Indonesia. Calanthe spp. have a wide range from China, Japan, Vietnam to Australia, Southern parts of India and South Africa. The striking Cattleya spp. are found only in South America. Coelogyne, a genus of considerable horticultural value, is mostly represented in Nepal and Sikkim but several species are found in Bhutan and upper Myanmar, China, South-East Asia, the Philippines and Fiji. About 20% of recorded Indian taxa are endemic. Dendrobium peguanum is a rare species, Rhizanthella gardneri is endemic to Western Australia which grows underground and Phaius tankervilliae (Nun’s orchid of Assam; 2n= 50) is also an endangered orchid. India has two conservation and germplasm centers at Shillong in Meghalaya and Yercaud in Tamil Nadu. Asia’s largest orchidarium is situated at Tipi, Arunachal Pradesh while orchids sanctuary is situated at Sikkim.

A family of 183 genera and over 2,600 species distributed widely in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world and a few also in warm, temperate regions. About 28 genera and over 95 species have been reported from India. Chief genera along with the number of their total reported species and the common names of them are Calamus (300, cane palm), Chamaedorea (130), Areca (54, betel nut plam), Coccothrinax (50, Biscayne palm), Copernicia (30, wax palm), Raphia (30, wine palm), Sabal (25, cabbage palm), Phoenix (17, date palm), Roystonea (17, Royal palm), Metroxylon (15, sago palm), Phytelephas (15, ivory-nut palm), Caryota (12, fish-tail palm), Elaeis (2, oil palm) and Cocos (1, coconut palm). Selected Indian Genera Araca, Borassus, Calamus, Cocos, Nypa, Phoenix. Economic Importance Palm family, supposed to be second in importance to Poaceae, is used for food, oils, shelter, coconuts, copra, dates, clothing, etc. As many as 801 uses of only Borassus flabellifer have been mentioned in one ancient Tamil song. Cocos nucifera (coconut Fig. 45.2) is another such plant of this family whose almost every part of entire plant body is utilized in some ways or other, i.e.

Primrose family is represented by about 58 genera and 2,600 species which are cosmopolitan but chiefly distributed in northern hemisphere. Some of the larger genera with their approximately reported species include Primula (500), Lysimachia (200), Dodecatheon (50), Dionysia (41), Anagallis (30), Cyclamen (15), Salomus and Soldanella (11). Selected Indian Genera Primula, Anagallis, Androsace, Cyclamen, Primula. Economic Importance The family is of no specific economic importance except that of some well known decorative plants it contains. Some species of Primula may cause contact dermatitis. Anagallis arvensis is used for curing snakebite, leprosy, gout and even hydrophobia. Cyclamen purpurascence contains glucoside cyclamen which is poisonous. Some of the commonly cultivated ornamental plants of Primulaceae are the species of Primula (primrose), Androsace (rock jasmine), Cyclamen (Fig. 46.1), Dodecatheon (shooting star), Douglasia, Lysimachia (Loosestrile) and Omphalogramma.

This family is represented by about 62 genera and 2,252 species, chiefly distributed in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Eastern Asia and eastern North America are the regions of their most common occurrence. The common genera, of which over 150 or more species have so far been reported, include Ranunculus (400), Aconitum (300), Delphinium (250), Clematis (250), Anemone (150) and Thalictrum (150). Some species occur in Arctic and Alpine zones. However, they are rare in tropics. Twenty genera and over 165 species of this family have so far been reported from India. Plants of this family flower mainly during winter in our country. Selected Indian Genera and Species • Ornamentals: Many Ranunculaceae have showy flowers and are grown as ornamentals in gardens. Some of such ornamentals are Aconitum napellus (aconite), Anemone parviflora (wind flower), Aquilegia coerulea (columbine), Caltha palustris (Marsh marigold), Clematis virginiana (traveller’s joy), Delphinium ajacis (larkspur), Helleborus (Christmas rose), Nigella damascena (love-in-a-mist), Paeonia emodi (Peony), Ranunculus aquatilis, R. seleratus (cedery peaved crow foot).

A family of approximately 91 genera and 4,828 species which are cosmopolitan in distribution but particularly abundant in Eastern Asia, North America and Europe. About 25 genera and 230 species of Rosaceae have so far been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with their common names and approximately reported species include Potentilla (Cinquefoil, 500), Prunus (peach, plum, almond, cherry, apricot, 430), Rosa (Rose, 250), Rubus (Raspberry, blackberry, 250), Alchemilla (250), Crataegus (Hawthorn, 200), Sorbus (Chokeberry, 250), Acaena (100) and Spirea (100). Named after the universally famous flowering plant, rose, the Rosaceae show great diversity in types of fruit (Fig. 48.1). Roses, universally acclaimed as the ‘queen of flowers’, have played major role in human culture and artistry from ancient times. Among the ornamentals, roses occupy very important position both as garden plants and cut flowers for their beauty and fragrance. This unique position is attributed to great amount of variation in flowers and plant characteristics as well as their wide adaptability to varied agro-ecological conditions. Damask rose (R. damascena) and Edouard rose (R. bourboniana) are cultivated for extraction of essence, rose attar or rose oil, otto and other products, gulkand, gulab jal and pankhuri from petals. Rose oil has a significant place as an ingredient in pharmaceutical preparations viz., ointments, lotions, perfumes, creams and soaps and in food products including beverages, baked foods, puddings and frozen dairy desserts. Characteristics of damask rose oil as anti-HIV, anti-bacterial and anti-oxidant have been established.

A family of about 611 genera and 13,150 species, Rubiaceae are chiefly distributed in tropics, but some are distributed in temperate or even arctic regions. About 75 genera and 275 species have been reported from India, chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical eastern Himalayas. Some of the largely represented genera with their approximately reported species (Hickey and King, 1988) include Psychotria (700), Galium (400), Ixora (400), Gardenia (250), Mussaenda (200), Asperula (200), Cephaelis (180), Rondeletia (120), Coprosoma (90), Guettarda (80), Rubia (60), Coffea (40) and Cinchona (40). Two most important plants of the family are Coffea arabica (coffee-yielding plant) and species of Cinchona (quinine-yielding plant). Economic Importance of Selected Genera and Species Some of the common ornamental plants grown in gardens and roadsides include Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Cephalanthus occidentalis, Galium verum (Ladies Bedstraw), Gardenia jasminoides (Jasmine), Hamelia patens, Hamiltonia suaveolens (Padera), Ixora arborea, I. coccinia, Morinda tinctoria, M. frondosa, M. luteola, Pentas lanceolatea and Rondeletia.

Represented by about 65 genera and 1,730 species, Scrophulariaceae are cosmopolitan in their distribution. About 60 genera and 360 species have been reported from India, chiefly from the Himalayas. Some of the genera along with their approximately reported species from world over are Pedicularis (500), Calceolaria (300-400), Scrophularia (300), Verbascum (300), Veronica (300), Penstemon (280, Linaria (150), Castilleja (150), Selago (150), Sutera (130), Mimulus (100), Antirrhinum (40) and Digitalis (20). The common names of the family (snapdragons, foxglove or figwort family) are because of its genera Antirrhinum (snapdragons), Digitalis (foxglove) and Scrophularia (figwort). Selected Indian Genera Antirrhinum, Digitalis, Linaria, Lindenbergia, Mazus, Verbascum, Veronica. Economic Importance 1. Ornamental plants: Include Angelonia angustifolia, Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Calceolaria scabiosaefolia (slipperwort), Castilleja (Indian paintbrush), Chelone glabra (turtlehead), Collinsia grandiflora, Digitalis purpurea (foxglove), Linaria vulgaris (toadflax), Mimulus luteus (monkey flower), Nemesia versicolor (Nemesia), Paulownia tomentosa, Pedicularis canadensis (housewort), Russelia juncea (coral blow), Torenia asiatica and Veronica bungifolia (speedwell).

A family of about 90 genera and 3,000 species distributed in both tropical and temperate regions. Central and South America are the chief centres of distribution where over 40 genera are found. About 15 genera and over 90 species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately world over reported species (Hickey and King, 1988) are Solanum (1700), Cestrum (150), Physalis (100), Lycium (80-90), Nicotiana (66), Capsicum (50), Petunia (40), Hyoscyamus (20) and Datura (10). Solanum tuberosum (potato) and Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) are the two most utilized plants of Solanaceae. Petunias, popular bedding plants, with variety of forms, sizes and shapes are employed for landscape planning, garden designs and container gardening. The numerous phenotypes viz., Grandifloras, Multifloras, Millifloras, Waves, Hedgifloras, etc. are complex hybrids. The outstanding marketable series of P. x hybrida have been developed for upright, spreading and semi-trailing to trailing habits. Selected Indian Genera Atropa, Capsicum, Cestrum, Datura, Nicotiana, Petunia, Physalis, Solanum, Withania.

A family of about 86 genera and 3,000 species distributed chiefly in tropics and sub-tropics. About 22 genera and over 30 species have been reported from India. Some of the genera along with their number of approximately reported species and common names of them are Clerodendron (400, glory-flower), Verbena (250, vervain), Vitex (250, chaste tree), Lippia (220, Frogfruit), Lantana (150), Callicarpa (140, beauty-berry), Stachytarpheta (100) and Tectona (3, teak). Verbena is popular ornamental plant suitable for flower gardens, hanging baskets, and balcony boxes. They are excellent both as ground cover for rockeries, and as bedding types. These plants abundantly flower in the seedin year and, thus, are grown as annual plants. Selected Indian Genera Clerodendron, Duranta, Lantana, Tectona, Verbena, Vitex. Economic Importance 1. Timber yielding plants: Teak, one of the most famous timber-yielding plants of the world, belongs to Verbenaceae. It is used for high quality furnitures, heavy constructions, ship building, musical instruments and several other similar purposes. Some other timber-yielding plants are Gmelina arborea, Premna benghalensis and Vitex altissima.

A family of about 23 genera and 800 species, Violaceae are distributed in both tropical and temperate regions. Only three genera (Hybanthus, Vahila and Viola) have been reported from India. Famous pansies, violas and violets belong to this family. Some of the larger genera with their approximate number of species in parenthesis include Viola (500), Rinorea (340) and Hybanthus (150). Majority of Indian Violaceae are found in Himalayas and hills of southern and western India. Garden pansy is an annual or perennial herb planted in flower beds worldwide owing to its pretty shape and contrasting colour markings, looking like a butterfly. It is called as ‘King of annuals’. In horticultural industry, there are variety of forms, sizes, and shapes of pansies which are employed for landscape planting, garden design, and container gardening. With the advent of F1 hybrids, pansies are known as high quality bedding plants. Dried flowers of Viola odorata Vern. are used against cough, influenza, and lung troubles while oil obtained from flowers is used in perfumes and flavourings. Selected Indian Genera and Species • Except for garden favourites, such as pansies, violas and violets, the family is of little economic importance. Over 100 species of Viola, are being grown as ornamental plants.

A family of 56 genera and over 1,300 species, Zingiberaceae are distributed in tropical regions, chiefly in Indomalaysia. About 17 genera and over 115 species have been reported from India, chiefly in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas. Some largely represented genera along with number of their world over reported species are Alpinia (250), Amomum (150), Costus (150), Zingiber (90), Kaempferia (70), Curcuma (60), Hedychium (50), Globba (50) and Elettaria (7). Selected Indian Genera Alpinia, Amomum, Costus, Curcuma, Elettaria, Hedychium, Zingiber. Economic Importance 1. Spices and condiments: Seeds of Amomum cardamom (Badi elayachi) and Elettaria cardamomum (true cardamom), roots of Alpinia officinarum (gangal root) and rhizomes of A. gangala (Siamese ginger), Curcuma longa (turmeric) and Zingiber officinalis (ginger) are used as spices, condiments and flavouring agents. Ginger oil, obtained from rhizomes of Z. officinalis, is used in perfumery and for medicinal purposes. Turmeric is also used for medicinal purposes.