The book is a comprehensive, multidisciplinary volume addressing one of the most pressing global health threats of our time. The book presents an in-depth exploration of AMR across humans, animals, food systems, and the environment, aligning with national and international One Health priorities.
Organized into five thematic units, this volume covers the fundamentals of AMR, mechanisms of resistance, and major drivers shaping its emergence. It provides detailed insights into both conventional and advanced diagnostic approaches, including multiomics and bioinformatics. A significant portion of the book is devoted to innovative technologies and alternative therapies—nanotechnology, phage therapy, RNA-based therapeutics, CRISPR-Cas systems, immunotherapeutics, natural products, and AI/ML-driven solutions.
Sector-specific chapters highlight AMR in veterinary practice, aquaculture, wildlife, food chains, human healthcare facilities, and environmental reservoirs. The book concludes with robust One Health strategies necessary for surveillance, stewardship, and long-term containment.
With contributions from leading researchers across India, this book serves as a valuable resource for students, academicians, veterinarians, medical professionals, public health experts, policymakers, and researchers working in microbiology, life sciences, food safety, and environmental sciences. It is designed to support evidence-based decision-making, capacity building, and future research for combating AMR.
The emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) pose a significant threat to global health, food security, and economic stability. The crisis transcends traditional boundaries, affecting not only human and animal health but also the environment, wildlife, and agriculture. In response to this complex challenge, the One Health approach has emerged as a crucial framework for understanding and addressing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. This book, “One Health and Antimicrobial Resistance”, brings together experts from diverse fields to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of AMR and its far-reaching implications. By exploring the socioeconomic impact, diagnostic approaches, drug development strategies, and surveillance mechanisms, this book aims to foster a deeper understanding of the issue and inspire collaborative solutions. Through the lens of One Health, we recognize that the fight against AMR requires a multidisciplinary effort, engaging stakeholders from healthcare, agriculture, environmental science, and beyond. By sharing knowledge, expertise, and innovative approaches, we can collectively address the pressing challenge of AMR and promote a One Health world where human, animal, and environmental well-being are intertwined and mutually supportive. This book serves as a call to action, encouraging researchers, policymakers, and practitioners to work together to mitigate the risks associated with AMR and ensure a healthier, more sustainable future for all. The book is a compilation of chapters contributed by professionals from various disciplines. However, for any topographical or technical error editors are not responsible. The financial assistance received from Research and Development Fund of National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) towards the sponsorship of the two days national conference on “Strengthening One Health Synergy: Combating Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) through Cross-Sectoral Innovation and Integration” is gratefully acknowledged. We also acknowledge Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) for providing financial assistance in successful conduction of this National conference
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most significant global health challenges of the 21st century. Defined as the ability of microorganisms— including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites—to resist the effects of antimicrobial drugs, AMR undermines the progress of modern medicine. Antimicrobials—including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics—are the cornerstone of modern medicine. Their discovery transformed the treatment of infectious diseases and enabled surgical advances, chemotherapy, and organ transplantation. However, Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin, warned that misuse could render these drugs ineffective. Antibiotics, since their discovery in the 20th century, revolutionized healthcare, saving millions of lives and enabling complex medical procedures. Yet, the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in human health, veterinary practices, and agriculture have rapidly accelerated the emergence of resistant organisms. Today, this warning has materialized as a global crisis. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is now considered one of the top ten public health threats by the World Health Organization (WHO). It is not only a biomedical issue but also a socio-economic and developmental challenge. This chapter aims to provide an in-depth overview of AMR, focusing on definitions, history, mechanisms, causes, global status, impacts, and the urgency of mitigation efforts. It also explores national and global responses and future directions to curb the spread of AMR. AMR is estimated to cause 700,000 deaths annually worldwide, with projections of 10 million deaths annually by 2050 if urgent interventions are not implemented. In addition to health impacts, AMR poses grave threats to food security, sustainable agriculture, economic stability, and global development. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of AMR, including definitions and conceptual frameworks, historical background, mechanisms of
Introduction The advent of antibiotics, beginning with penicillin in 1941, transformed medicine by rendering bacterial infections treatable [1]. However, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a profound threat, enabling bacteria to survive in the presence of drugs designed to inhibit or kill them and these are rooted in ancient microbial ecosystems evidenced by resistome genes in 30,000-year-old permafrost [2]. AMR has been exacerbated by human practices: approximately 50% of antibiotic prescriptions are inappropriate, 70% of global antibiotics fuel agriculture, and environmental pollution creates resistance hotspots [1]. By 2025, AMR directly causes 1.3 million deaths annually, with economic losses projected at $100 trillion by 2050 [1]. Priority pathogens, including carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and colistin-resistant strains via mcr-1, challenge last-resort therapies, particularly in low-resource settings [3]. This chapter delivers a technically extraordinary exploration of AMR, structured into genetic, biochemical, and evolutionary mechanisms, each elaborated with molecular precision and step-by-step clarity for learners. Genetic alterations provide the DNA-level foundation, biochemical pathways execute molecular defenses, and evolutionary forces drive adaptation and dissemination. It ensures scientific rigor and broad appeal for students, researchers, clinicians, and policymakers. Historical Context and Global Burden AMR emerged shortly after antibiotics’ introduction, with penicillin-resistant S. aureus identified by 1942 due to ß-lactamase production [1]. The 1960s
Introduction The discovery of antibiotics—one of the greatest medical breakthroughs of the 20th century—began when Sir Alexander Fleming noticed that the fungus Penicillium notatum inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus spp. This finding sparked a search for similar properties in other fungi and bacteria. From 1940 to 1960, known as the ‘Golden Era of Antibiotic Discovery’, most modern antibiotics such as streptomycin, tetracycline, rifampicin, and nalidixic acid were identified through natural product screening (Clardy et al., 2006; Lewis, 2013). However, the declaration that “it is time to close the book on infectious diseases and declare the war against pestilence won” proved to be premature (Davies & Davies, 2010). It was not a final victory but a fragile truce. In the ongoing war between humans and microbes—nature’s own creations—our successes are brief, and the microbial battleground keeps shifting. Bacteria’s genetic adaptability, coupled with human complacency, led to antimicrobial resistance (AMR), where microbes gradually evolved resistance to almost all known antibiotics (Ventola, 2015). Resistance appeared soon after antibiotics entered clinical use, but the emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria marked major setbacks (Prestinaci et al., 2015; WHO, 2023). AMR gained global attention with the rise of pan-drug-resistant strains—resistant to all antibiotic classes—seen in Klebsiella (India), Acinetobacter, and Pseudomonas (China, Italy, Greece), and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB). The infamous case of
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the top global public health threats. It is estimated that bacterial AMR was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and contributed to 4.95 million deaths (Murray et al., 2019).Despite its magnitude, public awareness of AMR remains low. Unlike tobacco smoke, antibiotics are potentially life-saving medications, but it is just as vital to understand the risks of overuse and their impact on future effectiveness in society as a whole (Langfordet al., 2019). Effective risk communication is essential to addressing AMR because it not only informs professional and community stakeholders but also nurturesbehaviour change across sectors. Within a One Health framework, risk communication connects human medicine, veterinary practice, agriculture, and environmental management, ensuring coordinated responses to reduce misuse and overuse of antimicrobials. This article explores the role of risk communication in combating AMR, highlighting global lessons, challenges, and strategies to strengthen communication systems for sustainable containment. The Growing Threat of AMR AMR occurs when microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve mechanisms to resist drugs that once effectively treated them. Misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in human health, livestock, aquaculture, and crop production accelerate resistance. According to WHO, AMR is projected to cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050 if left unaddressed (O’Neill, 2016). In countries like India, with high infectious disease burdens and large-scale antimicrobial consumption, the risks are particularly acute. Communicating these risks clearly and effectively is critical for influencing prescribing practices, agricultural use, and community awareness.Persistent misconceptions include beliefs that antibiotics are effective against viral illnesses and the mistaken notion that it is the human body, rather than bacteria, that develops resistance (Muflihet al., 2021). These knowledge gaps are often linked to insufficient or ineffective health communication (Krockowet al., 2023), sparse media coverage compared to threats like sepsis (Fitzpatrick et al., 2019). Challenges in AMR Risk Communication 1. Low Public Awareness: Despite the global severity ofAMR, public awareness remains critically low. Surveys have found that a mere fraction of the population grasp its implications, with some reporting only ~8–11% demonstrating adequate understanding and many feeling powerless to contribute (Goshaet al., 2024). 2. Ineffective understanding of Terminology: It is recognized that AMR has a ‘language problem’ and the way in which healthcare professionals communicate about AMR may not always resonate with patients (Langford et al., 2019). Technical labels like “AMR” or “antimicrobial resistance” fall short in public communication. Experiments reveal that phrases such as “Antibiotic Resistance” or “Antibiotic Crisis” are more memorable and better at promoting critical behaviors—like completing prescribed antibiotic courses—than more formal terminology. 3. Misconceptions about Antibiotics: Widespread misunderstandings persist regarding antibiotics’ purpose and effect. Many incorrectly believe antibiotics treat viruses—common colds, flu, or even are effective painkillers (Gunasekara et al., 2022).Some think AMR occurs because the body becomes resistant, rather than bacteria evolving resistance(Muflihet al., 2021). 4. Complexity of the Issue: AMR is inherently multifaceted—spanning interactions among humans, animals, and the environment—which makes it challenging to distill into clear, actionable messages. Understanding Risk
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents one of the most significant public health challenges of modern times. The discovery of antibiotics in the early 20th century revolutionized medicine, transforming once-fatal infections into manageable conditions and enabling life-saving procedures such as organ transplantation, chemotherapy, and joint replacement surgery. However, the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in human medicine, veterinary practice, and agriculture have accelerated the development of resistant microorganisms. Today, infections caused by resistant pathogens claim millions of lives worldwide each year, with the World Health Organization warning of a postantibiotic era in which minor injuries or routine surgeries could again become life-threatening. Although AMR is often framed within the context of hospital-acquired infections and clinical treatment failure, its implications extend much further. In particular, AMR has significant consequences for physical and health fitness. For athletes, soldiers, patients in rehabilitation, and physically active individuals, resistant infections can disrupt performance, delay recovery, and compromise long-term health. The increasing prevalence of resistant organisms in community environments—including gyms, swimming pools, and sports facilities—further raises concern. This chapter situates AMR at the intersection of clinical medicine, sports science, and community health. It explores how resistant pathogens affect physically active populations, complicate rehabilitation processes, and influence outcomes in both competitive and recreational Fitnes. It also highlights the global and national responses to AMR, preventive strategies relevant to Fitnes and rehabilitation, and the role of healthcare professionals
Introduction India has been making steady progress in the livestock sector with significant rise of meat, egg and milk production and a sustained annual growth rate of more than 5%. This growth trajectory is anticipated to accelerate further due to rising middle-class incomes combined with high income elasticity of demand for livestock products. However, despite having huge livestock resource, protein deficiency in rural India remains widespread. Recent data shows that two third of the Indian households are deficient in protein intake1. Looking at the growth potential in the sector, Govt. of India has put special focus on this sector and have undertaken many initiatives to boost animal health productivity and to increase farmer’s income. However, a major limiting factor in profitable livestock production in India is the high prevalence of infectious diseases. These livestock diseases cause great socioeconomic impact and are often exacerbated by inadequate biosecurity measures both in intensive and open production systems. Consequently, the use of antimicrobials for disease treatment has become an essential aspect of livestock management. Antibiotics usage in Animal Healthcare Antibiotics are an essential part of therapeutic management of infectious diseases in both farm and companion animals, ensuring better animal health and life; thereby also assures healthy food from the animal sources. In India a wide range of antibiotics are available in the veterinary practice viz. Penicillin, Semi-synthetic penicillin like Ampicillin, Amoxycillin, Aminoglycosides like Streptomycin, Gentamicin, Neomycin; Tetracycline, Kanamycin, Erythromycin; Fluoroquinolones like Enrofloxacin, Norfloxacin, Ciprofloxacin,
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses an escalating threat to global health, eroding the efficacy of antibiotics and complicating the management of bacterial infections. The proliferation of resistant pathogens, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), extended-spectrum betalactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae, and multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, has driven significant increases in morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. The ability to detect AMR accurately and promptly is paramount for guiding clinicians in selecting effective therapies, implementing targeted infection control measures, and informing public health strategies to curb the spread of resistant organisms. Conventional methods, rooted in phenotypic assessments, have served as the cornerstone of AMR detection in clinical microbiology laboratories for decades. These techniques evaluate bacterial growth under controlled exposure to antibiotics, offering direct evidence of resistance or susceptibility that molecular approaches, which focus on genetic markers, may miss due to silent mutations, complex regulatory mechanisms, or novel resistance pathways. This chapter provides an exhaustive examination of conventional AMR detection methods, encompassing disk diffusion, broth and agar dilution, gradient diffusion, and automated susceptibility testing systems. These approaches, refined through decades of clinical and research application, remain indispensable for their reliability, cost-effectiveness, and adaptability across diverse settings, from well-resourced tertiary hospitals to laboratories in low-income regions. By exploring their principles, procedures, applications, and limitations, we aim to underscore their enduring significance amidst the rise of rapid molecular diagnostics. The discussion also addresses specialized tests for detecting specific resistance mechanisms, such as beta-lactamase production, inducible clindamycin resistance, and carbapenem’s activity, which are critical for tailoring antimicrobial therapy. Through a critical lens, this chapter evaluates the strengths and challenges of these methods, offering insights into their role in addressing the global AMR crisis, their integration with emerging technologies, and their continued relevance in both routine diagnostics and epidemiological surveillance. The value of conventional methods lies in their ability to translate laboratory findings into actionable clinical decisions. Unlike genotypic methods, which detect resistance genes but may not predict phenotypic behaviour, these techniques assess how bacteria respond to antibiotics under conditions mimicking in vivo environments, aligning closely with therapeutic outcomes. As resistance patterns grow increasingly complex, driven by mechanisms like carbapenem’s and efflux pumps, conventional methods provide a practical foundation for diagnostics, particularly in resource-limited settings where advanced molecular tools are often inaccessible. Their role in global AMR surveillance, such as through the World Health Organization’s Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS), further underscores their importance in tracking resistance trends and informing policy.
Introduction The emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance has changed the landscape of infectious disease treatment, creating an urgent need for new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches4’7. Traditional phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility testing, while remaining the gold standard, requires 24-72 hours for results and provides limited insights into resistance mechanisms. Limited turnaround time is often a constraint that requires empirical use of antibiotics, potentially driving the propagation of other resistance emergence as well as suboptimal patient outcomes. Thanks to mass spectrometry, clinical microbiology has greatly benefitted through the rapid detection of pathogens. However, the application is far broader than species identification. The integration of multiple omics fields like proteomics, metabolomics, genomics, and transcriptomics through mass spectrometry provides unprecedented means to unravel, predict, and combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR) on a molecular level. The use of a multiomics approach is demonstrated to show that AMR is a complex phenotype that arises from the intersection between genetic mutations, variations in gene expression, metabolic differences, and changes in protein structures that all act in unison to affect bacterial survival in the presence of antibiotics. The conversion of raw mass spectrometry outputs into clinical insights amenable to decision-making is dependent upon bioinformatics. Through the use of sophisticated computational methodologies, such as machine learning and network analysis, bioinformatics provides the means to incorporate heterogeneous omics datasets. Through this approach, resistance-related biomarkers can be identified, predictions for therapeutic efficacy can be made, and new targets for intervention can be identified. The intersection between high-resolution mass spectrometry, broad-based omic profiling, and strictbioinformatics provides a powerful platform for addressing the intractable challenge of antimicrobial resistance.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a mounting global health emergency that threatens the effectiveness of modern medicine and veterinary care. In India, the challenge is compounded by high antibiotic consumption, unregulated access to antimicrobials, and widespread use in agriculture and animal husbandry. The World Health Organization has identified the Eskape pathogens— Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiellapneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp, as priority organisms due to their ability to “escape” the effects of antibiotics and cause life-threatening infections. Simultaneously, zoonotic transmission of resistant bacteria from animals to humans is emerging as a critical concern, particularly in regions with close human-animal interfaces like Jammu & Kashmir. The importance of Eskape pathogens to the establishment and promotion of antimicrobial resistance in hospitalized patients was first recognized in a 2008 by Rice. The morbidity and mortality associated with Gram-negative Eskape pathogens is particularly concerning, as new antimicrobial agentsthose with activity against multidrug-resistant and pan-resistant Gram-negative strainshave not emerged as quickly as needed. Consequently, nosocomial infections continue to pose a serious threat to patient health, especially among critically ill inpatients and those undergoing invasive procedures or requiring the placement of medical devices. Eskape pathogens are well known for their intricate resistance mechanisms, often leaving clinicians with limited therapeutic options. Due to their significant role in driving antimicrobial resistance within hospital settings, consistent and systematic monitoring of their resistance profiles is crucial for guiding effective infection control and therapeutic strategies.This also serves as a critical indicator of regional resistance trends among hospitalized populations. In animal sector, the wastewater of livestock slaughterhouses, animal products (raw or processed) have been considered a source of multidrugresistant bacteria with clinical implications as well as their dissemination into the environment and entry into human food chain.Bacteria from the livestock can act as opportunistic pathogens and carry resistance genes that are important for both veterinary and human health. Since many antibiotics are used in both human and animal health fields, the resistant bacteria enter the environmentespecially through wastewater treatment plants affected by slaughterhouse wasteposing risks to public health. Among the various sources, the water used during poultry slaughtering often contains multidrug-resistant bacteria and can expose slaughterhouse workers to infection. To reduce these risks, it’s important to develop strategies that limit bacterial release into the water systems and prevent their spread to people and the environment. The development of AMR has been attributed to several factors comprising of microbial mutations rendering the antibiotics ineffective, human interference such as over use and over-prescription of antimicrobials, agricultural and commercial application of antimicrobials in the animal sector, and human behavioural factors (Vijayalaxmi et al., 2021). An expected annual rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) by 5–10 % annually has been predicted by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Annual Report 2021 due to wide spread abusive use of broad-spectrum antibiotics (ICMR Annual Report 2021). Twelve families of priority drug-resistant bacteria (critical, high and medium) posing great threat to human health in terms of resistance to selected antimicrobials have been identified in priority pathogen list (PPL) of Global Action Plan, World Health Organisation (WHO) to stimulate the research towards the development of new antimicrobials against a particular drug-resistance (WHO,2017). From the Indian perspective, AMR is a grave concern as the Indian population is the highest consumer of antibiotics in the world (10.7 units per person). The poor public health systems, hospital infections, high rate of infectious diseases, easy availability of inexpensive
Introduction Infection prevention and control refers to prevention and control of infections and their transmission in healthcare settings. Healthcare Associated Infections (HAI) are one of the most common adverse events in delivery of care and a major public health problem with an impact on morbidity, mortality and quality of life. Up to 7% of patients in developed and 10% in developing countries acquire at least one HAI. These infections also present a significant economic burden for the health system.1It is evident that HAIs result in prolonged hospital stays, long-term disability, increased resistance of microorganisms to antimicrobials, additional cost on health systems, high cost for patients and their family, and preventable deaths. The core components of IPC2 • IPC programme at the national and health facility level • National and facility level evidence-based guidelines on IPC • Education and training • HAI surveillance • Multimodal strategies • Monitoring and audit of IPC practices and feedback • Workload, staffing and bed occupancy • Built environment, materials and equipment for IPC HAI Burden HAI are one of the most common adverse events in healthcare delivery and a major public health problem with an impact on morbidity, mortality and
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is regarded as a silent pandemic that is responsible for causing the majorityof deaths every year and has become a major healthcare challenge and a significant public health issue. It has been reported that AMR alone has caused more fatalities than road accidents and cancer. It is among the top ten global health threats and has been recognized as a part of the multisector One Health approach. It has been predicted that by the year 2050, the burden of AMR will decrease the gross domestic product (GDP) by 2 to 3.5%, causing a loss of USD100 trillion to the world, with the annual death rate reaching 10 million. India faces one of the world’s highest antimicrobial resistance (AMR) rates, driven by high antibiotic consumption in humans, widespread non-prescription use, and unregulated application in livestock, aquaculture, and agriculture. Surveillance data show alarming resistance in major pathogens E. coli and Klebsiella,which now exhibit very low susceptibility to key antibiotics such as cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, and carbapenems. Factors exacerbating the burden include inadequate infection prevention, limited laboratory capacity, poor enforcement of regulations, environmental contamination from pharmaceutical and hospital waste, and low public awareness. The combined impact threatens public health, food safety, and the economy. In general terms, AMR is defined as the ability of the microorganisms to withstand the action of an antimicrobial agent,i.e. Antibacterial agents, antifungal agents, potentially toxic metals, and disinfectants. AMR is known to be a natural process that occurs over time due to genetic changes in the pathogens under selective pressure, where a pathogen undergoes mutations and is often linked to indiscriminate use of antimicrobial agents. Indefinite and improper use of antimicrobial agentshas been a major factor in the emergence of AMR. AMR affects both animals and humans alike, and resistant pathogens pose a challenge in treating infections. One of the crucial factors responsible for AMR is theenvironment, which is regarded as both a vehicle for spreading AMR microbes as well is a culprit of AMR pollutants, which severely impact the ecosystems. AMR is a multifaceted problem and to control it effectively, meticulous measures have been implemented for monitoring and surveillance of AMR in clinical settings, in both human and veterinary fields. However, the environmental surveillance dealing with the environmental AMR has yet to be established. The implementation of comprehensive monitoring of AMR in environment will vastly improve our understanding of the various dissemination routes and propagation of the resistant microbes in environment and their role in spreading AMR. In this chapter, we will discuss the environmental spread of AMR, drivers of AMR in the environment, factors influencing AMR, challenges faced, measures to tackle AMR, and future trends in curbing the burden of AMR.
Introduction Aquaculture is one of the sunrise sectors contributing a significant quantity to the global supply of fish for human consumption. Fish is a superior source of highquality animal protein and highly digestible energy. Disease problems in farmed fishes are one of the main barriers, resulting in significant financial losses up to a tune of US$2.48 B, 14.95% of the annual aquaculture production value in Indian aquaculture. In the aquatic environment, bacteria are quite prevalent and the majority of bacterial pathogens are found in the water’s natural flora. They only spread illness when poor husbandry practices, inadequate nutrition, and unfavourable environmental circumstances contribute to fish stress. Pathogenic bacteria, including Aeromonas spp, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus spp, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Clostridium botulinum, Plesiomonas shigelloides, and Listeria monocytogenes, can be either naturally present in fish or introduced to them during handling, processing, and storage. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Indian aquaculture presents a multifaceted and growing challenge at the intersection of public health, environmental sustainability, and food security. As aquaculture expands to meet rising global demands for protein, the sector has increasingly relied on antimicrobials to prevent and treat bacterial infections. However, due to some indiscriminate and unregulated use of these agents as well as the householdsewage, hospital effluents, contamination from agricultural wastes andinadequately treated urban waters that enter the aquaculture through drains and rivers,creates strong selective pressure and accelerate the development and dissemination of resistant pathogens in aquatic environments posing a serious threat not only to farmed fish but also to human health through environmental contamination and the broader food chain. Resistant bacteria and resistance genes can spread through water systems, biofilms, and aquaculture products, creating reservoirs that contribute to the broader One Health AMR crisis. Food borne pathogens (Aeromonas spp., Vibrio spp., and Streptococcus spp.) from aquatic animals were found resistant to antimicrobial agents that are relevant for therapeutic usage in human clinical settings. E. coliwas found to be resistant as a sign of possible human and terrestrial animal effects. Distinguishing resistance that has been selected in different sectors is extremely difficult and caution is needed while trying to attribute the source of antibiotic resistance in bacteria in the aquatic environment. Understanding the drivers, mechanisms, and impacts of AMR in aquaculture is essential for developing effective mitigation strategies and sustainable management practices that safeguard both aquatic and human health.
Introduction Antibiotic-resistant E. coli develops as a result of the heavy use of antibiotics in the production of food animals, which is then found in the meat from those animals. There have been reports of a number of antimicrobial resistant E. coli infections linked to the ingestion of tainted milk and chevon. As a result, the existence of antibiotic resistant E. coli is a significant and expanding global public health risk. Escherichia coli of animal origin has also been seen to colonise humans, and because it is resistant to many conventional antibiotics, it can cause serious illnesses for which there are few effective treatment choices. Due to its ubiquitous presence in the environment, E. coli has traditionally been recognised as the main vehicle for the transmission of various antibiotic resistance genes and vectors.Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), which can make the bacteria resistant to some frequently used antimicrobial treatments, are tiny proteins (enzymes) that some strains of E. coli have been shown to manufacture under favourable conditions. A major issue around the world is the emergence of different E. coli strains that produce ESBL in foods that come from animals that are raised for food. The ESBL enzymes TEM, SHV, and CTX-M from Group A have been widely reported to be generated by E. coli and have been shown to hydrolyze ampicillin, carbenicillin, oxacillin, and an extended spectrum of cephalosporins, including ceftazidime and cefotaxime. Extended beta spectrum lactamase producing E. coli The occurrence of antimicrobial resistance and the presence of corresponding resistance genes in the environment is an ancient phenomenon. This is largely due to the fact that many of today’s antimicrobial agents are derived from natural precursors produced by soil bacteria such as Streptomyces. These natural compounds likely evolved to mediate microbial competition for
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global concern that poses a significant threat to contemporary healthcare systems, potentially hindering the management and treatment of various diseases. Microorganisms can act as reservoirs for AMR across various ecological niches; thus, a “one health” proposal is essential for coordinating a multisectoral strategy aimed at investigating and tackling this alarming issue. This method seems to be an effective strategy for addressing and alleviating the challenges posed by AMR; however, it demands the collaborative efforts and assets that are consistently and efficiently executed by health practitioners. Horses have been pivotal in human history; they have served in wars, provided transportation, and even aided in mining operations. In contemporary society, horses are significant as sport animals and in therapeutic settings involving animals. Given these close interactions between humans and equines, it becomes essential to effectively identify infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) impacting both species, particularly in instances of highly contagious diseases. Resistant bacteria represent a significant threat to the health of both equines and humans. Horses may obtain resistant bacteria through several avenues, such as interaction with other animals, exposure to contaminated materials, or to antibiotic uses. The responsible utilization of antibiotics and the implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential in reducing the transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) within equine populations. A variety of zoonotic pathogens that exhibit resistance to antibiotics has been identified in equines. This includes Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamases (ESBL) which produces E. coli, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA), and Multidrug-Resistant (MDR) Salmonella. Horses can develop AMR through various channels like:
Introduction Haemoprotozoan diseases are highly prevalent in tropical and sub-tropical countries owing to the ubiquitous distribution of ticks and blood-sucking flies which are natural vectors for the pathogens. In India, theileriosis, babesiosis and trypanosomosis are major haemoprotozoan diseases and cause substantial economic losses to the livestock industry. Though vaccination of the susceptible stock by attenuated schizont vaccine is available for the control of tropical theileriosis in cattle, chemotherapy is the mainstay for the control of haemoprotozoan diseases. However, the limited available antihaemoprotozoan drugs is being depleted by a combination of two factors viz. emergence of drug resistance and the failure to replace old drugs (de Koning, 2017). Drug resistance against parasites is one of the emerging problems affecting veterinary health sector. Since last few decades, development of drug resistance in haemoprotozoan parasites to several drugs has been reported (Tuvshintulga et al., 2019; Ali et al., 2022). Though, understanding of drug resistance in parasitic protozoa is progressing steadily but possibly not as rapidly as parasites are becoming resistant to drugs. The genetic changes in the target sites, the reduced uptake and increased efflux of drugs, and metabolic regulations are the possible mechanism for the cause of drug resistance (Fairlamb et al., 2016). Anti-protozoan drug resistance has been reported in many economically important protozoa to isometamedium, diminazene aceturate, quinapyramine, suramin, melarsomine dihydrochloride, buparvaquone. The resistance initially evolves at genetic level of parasite with genetic traits that allow them to survive exposure to a drug, which is transferred to the subsequent generation thereby potentially increasing the percentage of resistant parasite that can survive subsequent exposure to the chemical. The emergence of drugresistant parasites has serious implications for treating clinical cases, leading to increased morbidity and mortality among the animals and control of the diseases.
Introduction Antibiotic therapy is one of the mainapproaches of modern medicine used tofight bacterial diseases worldwide.Antibiotics comprise of any natural, synthetic, or semi-synthetic substances which interfereswith the growth and development of microbes or have killing effect onmicrobes, specifically bacteria. The availability of these antibiotics for treating various bacterial infectious diseases significantly improved the quality of life of humans as well as animals.The period from1930s to 1960s is considered as the ‘golden era’ of antibiotics during whichmost of the antibiotics available today werediscovered. Antibiotics, once known as the magic bullets of modern-day medicine, are now an “endangered species” facing the danger of extinction due to the worldwide emergence of antibiotic resistance (ABR)/antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among microbes. In general, AMR is the capacity of a microbes (bacteria, fungi, and viruses) to resist the growthinhibitory or killing activity of an antimicrobial beyond its normal susceptibility by altering their physiologyor genetic makeup. AMR has emerged as one of the most critical and complicated global public health threat due to its multi-faceted nature.World Health Organization (WHO) has declared AMR as one of the top 10 global public health threats. The emergence of AMR is closely related to the extensive use and misuse of existingantibiotics in the human and animal fields without properguidelines as well as failure to developor discover new antibiotics. AMR leads to a significant health burden worldwide as it is estimated that bacterial AMR alone attributesto 1.14 million deaths globally in the year 2021 and if left unchecked, it may contribute to 10 million deaths annually by 2050.This prediction was recently updated with the data from 2019 and reported that the deaths of 4.95 million people were related to drug-resistant bacterial infections and 1.27 million deaths were directly attributable to AMR.In addition to the health burden, AMR also increases the healthcare costs and imposes significant indirect economic burdens.Increasing reports of treatment failures in patients with infections caused by multi-, extensive-, and pan-drugresistant bacteriahave been documented in literature from different part of the world. Antibiotics once normally used to treat bacterial infections are no longer effective, and it becomes vital to use “reserve” or “last resort” antimicrobials that are often more expensive. Furthermore, WHO has also emphasized that AMR not only makes infections harder to treat but also jeopardizes ancillary medical procedures such as surgeries and cancer treatments. Food may act as a carrier for the transfer of antimicrobialresistant bacteria (AMRB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) to humans.Many scientific reports establish a link between the extensive use of antibiotics duringagricultural production and the increase in AMRamong human pathogens, in which food is one of thepossible transmission routes. Antibiotics are regularly added to feed as additives in intensive animal production systems at sub-therapeutic doses to stimulate growth, improve feed efficiency and avoid infections. The extensive use of antibiotics in human treatment, animal therapy and agricultural use as growth promoters are further causes of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. In recent years, the prevalence of AMR among microorganisms isolated from animal source foods (milk, meat, eggs etc) has increased. The increasing demand for quality animal protein has driven intensive farming, leading to increased antimicrobial usage. In the year 2020, global antimicrobial consumption in food-producing animals was estimated around 99,502 tonnes.Antibiotics are commonly used prophylactically infoodproducing animals and it is projected that by 2030 such usewill increase by approximately 67% globally.Despite efforts to reduce antibiotic use, many countries still rely heavily on antimicrobials for growth promotion and disease prevention. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has emphasized the need for better monitoring of antimicrobial use in animals. The emergence and spread of AMR in the food chain is considered as a multisectoral issue, because (i) antibiotics are widely used in livestock production systems (cattle, poultry etc), (ii) AMRB and ARGs can easily spread at each stage of the food production chain, and (iii) these AMRB can cause infections in humans.Thus, the emergence of AMR along the food chain is a major
Introduction The discovery of antibiotics in the early 20th century revolutionized medicine, agriculture, and public health. These compounds, capable of inhibiting or destroying pathogenic bacteria, not only saved millions of human lives but also transformed animal production systems by reducing morbidity and mortality, improving growth rates, and ensuring food security (Phillips et al., 2004). The application of antibiotics in food animals,whether for therapeutic, prophylactic, or growth-promoting purposes,has been instrumental in increasing global meat, milk, egg, and fish production, thus addressing the nutritional needs of a growing population (Darwish et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2019). However, the indiscriminate and excessive use of antibiotics in animal agriculture has created unintended consequences, most notably the presence of antibiotic residues in foods of animal origin and the global acceleration of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (Bacanli & Basaran, 2019; Shahid et al., 2021). Antibiotic residues in food is the trace amounts of active compounds or its metabolites that remain in edible animal tissues, milk, eggs, and aquaculture products causes significant concerns for both consumer safety and public health. Even when below the maximum residue limits (MRLs) established by regulatory authorities, prolonged exposure may lead to allergic reactions, disruption of the gut microbiome, reproductive and developmental toxicity, mutagenicity, nephropathy, and in certain cases carcinogenicity (Ngangom et al., 2019; WHO, 2020). Furthermore, residues contribute to the selection pressure that drives the emergence and dissemination of resistant bacterial strains in humans, animals, and the environment (FAO, 2019; O’Neill, 2016). The One Health framework highlights these interconnected pathways, recognizing food as a critical link between veterinary antibiotic use and human AMR burden (Robinson et al., 2016). Globally, approximately 73% of antibiotics are consumed in food animal production, with projections estimating a further 11–67% increase by 2030,largely by intensification of livestock and aquaculture in developing economies (Van Boeckel et al., 2015; Tiseo et al., 2020). While industrialized nations have implemented bans on antibiotic growth promoters and introduced robust surveillance programs, most low- and-middle-income countries still facing challenges (Antibiotics, 2021; WHO, 2019). Consequently, foods containing antibiotic residues frequently enter local and international markets, undermining food safety standards and exacerbating AMR risks (Darwish et al., 2013; Antibiotics, 2021). Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a major global public health crisis, directly causing an estimated 1.27 million deaths and contributing to nearly 5 million deaths worldwide in 2019. Recognizing its severity, the World Health Organization (WHO) has identified AMR as one of the top ten threats to global health(Murray et al., 2022). By 2050, global economic losses linked to AMR are projected to reach USD 100–210 trillion, with Asia bearing a disproportionate mortality burden (O’Neill, 2016). Countries like India, with large livestock populations, rapidly growing aquaculture industries, and high human antibiotic consumption, represent critical hotspots where food, health, and environmental risks intersect (Chauhan et al., 2018; ICMR, 2020). Given these alarming trends, understanding the occurrence, detection, and consequences of antibiotic residues in foods of animal origin is paramount. This chapter explores the co-relationship between origin of antibiotic residues and AMR, regulatory measures aimed to safeguard food safety and strategies for prevention and control, framed within the One Health approach.
Introduction The discovery and introduction of antimicrobial agents to clinical medicine was one of the greatest medical triumphs of the 20th century that revolutionized the treatment of bacterial infections. However, the gradual emergence of populations of antimicrobial resistant pathogenic bacteria, resulting from use, misuse and abuse of antimicrobials has today become a major global health concern. Antibacterial drugs have revolutionized our ability to control bacterial disease, and their clinical availability has led to dramatic decreases in morbidity and mortality. (Walsh and Wright, 2005). As such, these therapeutics underpin modern medicine. Despite the integral role of antibiotics in sustaining our modern lifestyle, they are undervalued in both cost and significance by society. Over the past century, their use has provided strong selective pressure on microorganisms, leading to preferential survival and spread of those harbouring antibiotic resistance mechanisms. Multidrug resistance is now commonplace amongst bacterial pathogens with antibiotic resistance now affecting all antibiotic classes. (Coates et al, 2011). This is particularly worrisome in the case of Gram-negative bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii) for which treatment options are already limited. The ‘broken’ economics of antibacterial research and development is often quoted as the main reason for the lack of new therapies but the truth is that it is hard to discover new antibacterial drugs, and the science is not sufficiently advanced to allow discovery of efficient and effective drugs. This has led to fears of a ‘post-antibiotic era’ as it has been estimated that 5–20 novel antibacterial drugs need to enter clinical development in order to effectively contend with the current resistance problem. However, given the attrition rate within the existing drug discovery model, at least 200 discovery programmes would be needed in order to achieve this outcome. Hence, new approaches to antibiotic discovery are needed. The antibiotic pipeline The antibiotic pipeline is not what it once was.4 Pharmaceutical companies were once the main provider of novel antibiotic molecules but they largely withdrew in the late 1990s because of the lack of success and low financial returns in bringing new antibacterial drugs to the market.5 The environment of discovering and developing new antibiotics was quite different during the so-called ‘golden era’ of drug discovery. Antibiotics worked remarkably well because resistance was low and physicians had access to a variety of efficacious antibiotics. Antibiotic research and development programmes were inclined to focus on improved pharmacology to achieve less frequent dosing e.g. once a day, rather than innovative new antibiotics. Natural product screening strategies tended to result in rediscovery of compounds rather than finding new ones. There was also no need to consider those natural products with undesirable properties such as toxicity. Today, only a few large companies such as GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, Merck and Roche are still actively engaged in antibiotic R&D, with many of the original antibiotic provide.The natural world remains the largest source of novel drug scaffolds making this a viable option in the search for new antibiotic compounds. Advances in bacterial culture techniques, molecular biology and metagenomics will make natural product drug discovery easier and more costeffective, obviating these limiting factors. Screening procedures must include whole-bacterial cell assays, addressing the issue of bacterial permeability and efflux early in the discovery process (Shore and Coukell, 2016). Additionally, the generation of training schemes by, and with, pharmaceutical companies that cover all aspects of the pipeline and include natural product drug discovery, are essential and will ensure that expertise is passed on to future researchers. Investment should also be made into the study of previously characterized lead compounds that did not reach the clinic, so called old leads. The reasons that led to these compounds being dropped from further development vary, ranging from financial issues to trial design, dosing problems and toxicity. It may be that there is now sufficiently improved technology and expertise to develop these as safe and efficacious antibacterials. The revival of interest in old leads could also provide an additional source of novel antimicrobials. A freely accessible database of antibiotics that were never developed has recently been launched, Antibiotic with the aim to reduce unnecessary duplication of Pharmaceutical agents such as nanospheres, liposomes, and immunoglobulins for example have been developed which can alter the pharmacodynamics of a compound, act as carriers for sustained or controlled drug release, and for immunization therapy.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a mounting global crisis that threatens public health, food security, and development. The rapid spread of resistant pathogens has rendered many conventional antibiotics ineffective, leading to longer illnesses, increased mortality, and escalating healthcare costs(1)(2). The World Health Organization characterizes AMR as a top-ten global health threat, driven by overuse, misuse, and inadequate dosing of antibiotics. It already kills 700,000 people a year and is expected to kill 10 million people a year by 2050 if nothing is done about it(3). After penicillin was introduced to the market in 1941, the first signs of resistance appeared in staphylococci, streptococci, and gonococci. By 1942, Staphylococcus aureus, which was penicillin-resistant, emerged(4). Drug resistance must be effectively addressed for a few reasons, including public health, economic considerations, and the long-term viability of medicine. Maintaining the effectiveness of existing treatments for infectious diseases is an important objective(5). NDDS technologies have emerged as powerful tools to enhance the delivery, bioavailability, and targeting of antimicrobial agents, potentially reviving older antibiotics, and maximizing the efficacy of novel compounds(6). Parallelly, AI has found impactful applications in biomedical data analysis, drug discovery, and the rational design of therapies by processing complex datasets, predicting resistance patterns, and guiding the creation of new molecules. The integration of AI with NDDS marks a paradigm shift to optimizes delivery systems, guides individualized treatment plans, and advances the field towards precision medicine for infectious diseases (7). This chapter surveys the convergence of these technologies, exploring how AIenhanced NDDS platforms are reshaping the response to AMR. Additionally, it examines diverse AI models and algorithms employed in the prediction, optimisation, and management of drug resistance, enhanced by real-time case studies for thorough comprehension(fig1.).
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is rapidly emerging as one of the most critical global health challenges of the 21st century. Antimicrobial resistance can be defined as a condition in which microbes develop resistance against the spectrum of conventional antibiotics, also known as multidrug resistance and these microbes are typically known as drug-resistant pathogens. The infections associated with antibiotic resistant pathogens are usually accompanied by substantial morbidity and mortality along with the massive economic burden on global healthcare, which causing approximately 4.95 million deaths globally each year. The prevalent issue is largely attributed to the repercussions of antimicrobial overuse or irresponsible utilization across diverse contexts, predominantly in clinical treatment, agricultural practices, animal healthcare, war crisis and the food system and a lack of regulation in their supply. Nature has long been a rich reservoir of biologically active compounds with diverse chemical structures and pharmacological properties, offering valuable resources for treating a wide array of diseases. In recent years, the rising threat of antimicrobial resistance has renewed global interest in natural products as promising sources for novel antimicrobial agents. Among these, plant-derived phytochemicals, microbial metabolites, marine bioactive compounds, and animal-based substances have shown significant potential in combating drug-resistant pathogens. These natural compounds exhibit unique mechanisms of action that can overcome existing resistance pathways, making them important candidates in the development of nextgeneration antibiotics. From alkaloids and flavonoids in medicinal plants to secondary metabolites produced by actinomycetes, antimicrobial peptides from animals, and complex molecules derived from marine organisms, nature offers a vast and largely untapped arsenal of antimicrobial agents. Exploring and harnessing these natural resources presents a sustainable and innovative strategy to address the growing global crisis of antimicrobial resistance. The enormous potential of natural products in the fight against antibiotic resistance is examined in this chapter. The different kinds of bioactive chemicals, their modes of action, and the creative approaches being used to maximize their medicinal potential are highlighted. Challenges in Addressing AMR with Conventional Methods 1. Weak Implementation of National Action Plans: Only a small percentage of the more than 170 nations that have created AMR action plans have operationalized them with specialized financing and monitoring mechanisms. This leads to a gap between policy and practice, especially in low- and middle-income nations. 2. Restrictions in the Management of Antimicrobials: Lack of qualified staff, insufficient microbiological assistance, and shoddy governance frameworks are some of the common obstacles that antimicrobial stewardship initiatives must overcome. Due to the lack of quick diagnosis, broad-spectrum antibiotics are still empirically used in many hospitals. 3. Diagnostic Barriers: Rapid diagnostic methods are still few, and traditional culture-based susceptibility testing is sluggish. Resistance selection is accelerated by this diagnostic latency, which frequently forces physicians to use broad-spectrum empirical treatment. 4. Surveillance Gaps: Despite the growth of programs like the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS), data quality and surveillance coverage are still uneven. The inability of many nations to track resistance in important diseases compromises prompt policy responses. 5. Limited Innovation in Drug Development: Only a few new types of antibiotics are now in advanced clinical development, making the pipeline still rather thin. Under the present traditional paradigm, pharmaceutical innovation is discouraged by market failure due to low return on investment.
Introduction The discovery and widespread use of antibiotics in the mid-20th century marked a transformative era in modern medicine, enabling life-saving interventions in surgery, transplantation, and critical care. Diseases once considered fatal became manageable, and the global burden of infectious diseases significantly declined. However, the remarkable success of antibiotics has been increasingly overshadowed by the rapid rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), now recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the most serious threats to global health, food security, and sustainable development. Resistant infections already contribute to longer hospital stays, increased healthcare costs, and elevated mortality rates. Alarmingly, if current trends continue, AMR-related deaths are projected to exceed those caused by cancer by 2050.A pivotal yet often underestimated factor in the persistence and spread of AMR is the formation of microbial biofilms. Biofilms are highly organized, surface-attached communities of microorganisms embedded in a self-produced extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) composed of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids. This matrix not only anchors microbial population but also confers protection against environmental stressors, immune responses, and antimicrobial agents. Bacteria within biofilms can withstand antibiotic concentrations up to 1000 times higher than their planktonic counterparts due to altered metabolic states, enhanced horizontal gene transfer, and activation of resistance mechanisms such as efflux pumps. Biofilms are implicated in over 80% chronic and device-associated infections, including those caused by ESKAPE pathogensAcinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus. These infections are notoriously difficult to treat and often recur, posing significant clinical challenges. Beyond healthcare settings, biofilm formation in livestock and agricultural environmentsexacerbated using antibiotics as growth promoterscontributes to the emergence of resistant strains that can spread to humans via direct contact, environmental contamination, or the food chain.Understanding the multifaceted resistance mechanisms within biofilms is essential for developing effective containment strategies. These include physical exclusion of antibiotics by the EPS matrix, metabolic dormancy, persister cell formation, quorum sensing-mediated coordination, and stress response activation. Moreover, biofilms often consist of multispecies communities, where interspecies interactions further enhance resilience.In response, antibiofilm agents have emerged as a promising frontier in AMR containment. These include natural compounds (e.g., antimicrobial peptides, essential oils), engineered materials (e.g., nanoparticles, surface coatings), quorum sensing inhibitors, efflux pump blockers, and enzymatic disruptors such as dispersin B and DNases. Ecological approaches like probiotics and positive biofilms offer preventive strategies in agriculture and food systems. Importantly, these agents aim to complement antibiotics by enhancing their efficacy rather than replacing them.Despite challenges in scalability, safety, and regulatory approval, antibiofilm strategies represent a paradigm shift in infection control. Their integration into clinical, veterinary, and environmental practicesaligned with the One Health frameworkis essential for preserving antibiotic effectiveness and mitigating the global AMR crisis.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a major worldwide health issue, requiring the search for natural, safe, and efficient substitutes for synthetic antibiotics. The ancient medical system known as Ayurveda lists a variety of polyherbal compositions having jwaraghna (antipyretic) and krimighna (antimicrobial) qualities. A traditional decoction preparation that is frequently prescribed for microbial infestations (krimi), wound infections, fevers, and skin conditions called Nimbadi Kwatha.Strong herbs that have been separately shown to have antibacterial and immunomodulatory properties, including Nimba (Azadirachta indica), Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), Triphala (Haritaki, Bibhitaki, Amalaki), Vasa (Adhatoda vasica), and Katuki (Picrorhiza kurroa), make up Nimbadi Kwatha. Triphala has antimicrobial and antioxidant qualities, Guduchi boosts host immunity and has antibacterial qualities, and Neem provides broad-spectrum antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity. According to experimental studies, giloy extracts are effective against a variety of pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It has a distinct antimicrobial activity that involves two mechanisms: it enhances phagocytosis, changes cytokine production, and activates macrophages. In light of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), T. cordifolia is a prospective option for the development of plant-based antimicrobials and integrated therapies. Its use is backed by both modern pharmacological research and ethnomedicinal history for infectious disorders and immune health. Nimbadi Kwatha and its derivatives, including Nimbadi Ubatan and soap formulations, have been shown to have antibacterial properties by modern pharmacological research, which also showed a notable inhibition of bacterial and fungal growth in vitro. These results demonstrate the value of Ayurveda in treating infectious diseases and lend credence to its traditional claims. To close the gap between traditional knowledge and contemporary evidence, a thorough analysis of Nimbadi Kwatha’s antibacterial impact is essential. It also identifies the plant’s potential as a natural remedy for drug-resistant infections.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical public health problem globally, which can shake the foundation of modern healthcare. Infections caused by drugresistant organisms could lead to increased mortality and prolonged duration of hospitalization, causing a huge financial burden to the affected persons, healthcare systems and hinder the goals of sustainable development. With rising AMR, antibiotics are increasingly becoming ineffective for treating diseases.The post antibiotic era is not a dreadful imagination but a potential reality unless effective global actions are initiated now (1). AMR is not the only problem of human health, it widely affects the animal husbandry as well as environment. In India in 2019, there were 297,000 deaths attributable to AMR and 1,042,500 deaths associated with AMR. India has the 145th highest age-standardized mortality rate per 100,000 population associated with AMR across 204 countries.The number of AMR deaths in India is higher than deaths from neoplasms, respiratory infections and tuberculosis, enteric infections, diabetes and kidney diseases and maternal and neonatal disorders.Out of 10 million projected human deaths in 2050, one-fifth may be from India (2).Annually, more than 50 000 new-born are estimated to die from sepsis due to pathogens resistant to first-line antibiotics. The median cost of treatment of a resistant bacterial infection in India is estimated to be more than a year’s wages of a rural worker. There are five pathogens to be aware of in India (number of deaths associated with AMR in parenthesis): Escherichia coli (152,700), Klebsiella pneumoniae (123,200), Staphylococcus aureus (111,400), Acinetobacter baumannii (103,500), and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (98,600).If there is no timely containment, AMR is likely to cause nearly 10 million deaths by 2050 and resulting in significant economic losses. It would also impact nutrition security, livelihood and hinder the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals. In 1928, penicillin was developed and socalled magic drug was subsequently commercialised and used globally. When antibiotic resistance ?rst emerged, novel antibiotics to treat these bacteria were developed. However, it is dif?cult to develop effective new antibiotics every time as it is time consuming and costly and if developed a new resistance mechanism emerges in bacteria. There is a demand for new strategies to treat bacterial infections, such as endophytes therapy, phage therapy, antimicrobial peptides, CRISPER cas and so on.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the gravest threats to modern medicine, undermining decades of progress in infectious disease control. It is cited by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top 10 threats to global health. In 2019 alone, AMR was associated with approximately 4.95 million deaths, including 1.27 million directly attributable to resistant bacterial infections. This makes AMR a leading cause of death worldwide, surpassing HIV/AIDS (0.86 million deaths) and malaria (0.64 million deaths) in the same year. Projections suggest that if the trend continues unchecked, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, representing a profound human-cost escalation. Livestock and Animal burden While the quantitative burden of AMR in animals is not yet globally mapped, its effects in livestock are already both profound and alarming. Over 70% of all antimicrobials globally are used in farm animalsfrequently for growth promotion and disease prevention—not just treatment. This widespread use contributes to emerging resistance in key pathogens—Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter in poultry, and severe swine dysentery in pigs. In some outbreaks, swine dysentery, resistant to conventional treatment, has caused up to 90% morbidity and 30% mortality in weaned pigs. Animal-to-Human Transmission and the One Health Paradigm Antimicrobial resistance in livestock doesn’t stay on the farm—it seeps into the environment and crosses over to humans via food chains, direct contact, and environmental pathways. For example, substandard veterinary medicines and antibiotic misuse has been traced in zoonotic infections and veterinary-tohuman AMR transmission.Surveillance gaps remain: the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) acknowledges that while human-related AMR mortality is well-documented, the animal health burden is not yet quantified globally—though numerous projects are underway to address this gap. The failure of conventional antibiotics to treat resistant infections highlights the urgent need for alternative therapeutic strategies. Among the most promising options is bacteriophage therapy—the use of viruses that specifically target and kill bacteria. Bacteriophages Bacteriophages, often referred to simply as phages, are viruses that infect and replicate within the bacteria. They are considered as the most abundant biological entities on Earth, with an estimated amount 10³¹ phage particles present in the biosphere—outnumbering bacteria by approximately tenfold. Phages are naturally found in diverse ecosystems including soil, ocean, sewage, and even within the microbiomes of humans and animals.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is rapidly becoming one of the most critical challenges in global health, with profound implications for both human and veterinary medicine. The increasing prevalence of drug-resistant bacterial infections has eroded the effectiveness of many frontline antibiotics, making even routine treatments more complex and less predictable. Surveillance data from the World Health Organization’s GLASS initiative highlights the scale of the problem: resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in Escherichia coli and methicillin in Staphylococcus aureus has reached alarming levels in dozens of countries, complicating the management of common infections and raising the stakes for therapeutic innovation. In veterinary settings, the crisis is equally urgent. Resistance has emerged across nearly all major antibiotic classes used in livestock, poultry, and companion animals. Contributing factors include widespread antibiotic use in agriculture, limited diagnostic stewardship, and the ease with which resistance genes spread within and between microbial communities. These trends not only threaten animal health and productivity but also increase the risk of zoonotic transmission, blurring the boundaries between veterinary and human public health. Global health authorities have long warned of a “post-antibiotic era” - a time when conventional antibiotics may no longer offer reliable protection against bacterial pathogens. Recent reports suggest that this era is no longer hypothetical. If current trajectories continue, drug-resistant infections could account for up to 10 million deaths annually by 2050, with staggering economic consequences. To address this escalating threat, researchers are exploring alternative therapeutic strategies that go beyond traditional antibiotics. Among the most promising are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and bacteriophage therapy. AMPs are naturally occurring molecules found in animals and other organisms, known for their broad-spectrum activity and rapid bactericidal effects. Their ability to disrupt bacterial membranes through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions makes them less susceptible to resistance mechanisms that target conventional antibiotics. Bacteriophages - viruses that specifically infect and lyse bacteria - offer a complementary approach. Phage therapy is highly targeted, capable of eliminating specific bacterial strains while sparing beneficial microbiota. Phage’s can also evolve alongside bacterial populations, potentially outpacing resistance development. In veterinary medicine, phage-based treatments have shown promise in managing infections in poultry, swine, cattle, and companion animals, particularly where antibiotic options are limited or ineffective. The combined use of AMPs and bacteriophages represents a novel and potentially synergistic strategy for tackling AMR. By leveraging distinct mechanisms of action and delivery profiles, these agents may enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce resistance selection pressure, and improve outcomes across a range of veterinary applications. This chapter explores the pharmacological and pharmacokinetic challenges associated with delivering such combination therapies, with a focus on optimizing their use in the fight against antimicrobial resistance.
Introduction India with a population of 1.30 billion people is highly focusing on “Development”i.e. good food, better health & living conditions for everyone. With the increase in the incomes, people can now afford better nutrition in the form of poultry egg and meat, now poultry industry has transformed from a mere backyard activity into a major commercial activity in just four decades. India is now the world’s 3rd largest egg producer and the 5thlargest producer of broilers. The Indian poultry market witnessed an increasing trend over the past five years, growing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 8.6% (DAHD, 2023). Poultry sector in India is valued at about Rs. 1,50,000 crore (2022-23) broadly divided into two sub-sectors – one with a highly organized commercial sector with about 80% of the total market share (say, Rs. 1,20,000 crore) and the other being unorganized with about 20% of the total market share of Rs. 30,000 Crore. (DAHD, 2023). Poultry production in India has become a profitable and most popular income generating sector for the educated unemployed youth. Most of the poultry farmers are interested in broiler production due to its quick returns, less space requirement and higher weight gains. The productive potential of poultry in India has not been fully exploited due to deficit feed resources and unutilization of available improved technologies for getting high productivity from the poultry at economical rate. Hence, it is essential to further enhance the feeding value of available feed resources so as to improve the efficiency of feed utilization and minimize the cost of feed per kilogram live weight gain. The use of antibioticas growth promoters in poultry has been banned due to concern about their residues in tissue and induction of bacterial resistance. Due to these concerns, recently many feed additives has been investigated for alternatives tofeed antibiotics. The international feed industry is facing the challenge of the awareness among the consumers of meat on the risk of bringing about antibiotic resistance in pathogenic microbiota through antibiotics used in animal and poultry feeds. It has directed them towards the non-antibiotic feed additives. Among them, the feed additives of plant origin, called as Phyto-additives or Phytogenic Feed Additives (PFA) or Phytobiotics are considered to be a better alternative as non-antibiotic growth promoters, even though there are well established non antibiotic growth promoters such as organic acids and probiotics. The Phytogenic feed additives also vary widely in their botanical origin, processing and composition. They have been used in solid, dried and ground forms or as extracts or essential oils.It is reported that aromatic plants may increase feed intake and may improve secretion of endogenous digestive enzymes. It has been shown thatthe dietary incorporation of herbs may provide beneficial effect on poultry performance and health due to the antimicrobial activity of their phytochemical components. Phytobiotics have gained increasing interest as natural growth promoting feed additives in broiler production in recent years. These have wide range of medicinal properties with no residual side effects and are best alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters (Chaudhary et al., 2018, 2019, Rahman et al., 2014). Beneficial effects of these substances in poultry nutrition are due to their high content of pharmacologically active compounds stimulating appetite and feed intake, improving endogenous digestive secretion and activating immune responses (Nouzarian et al., 2011 and Toghyani et al., 2010).
Introduction The discovery of antibiotics and their subsequent use in combating infectious diseaseswas amedical breakthroughin the 20th century, as it completely changed the treatment approach to infections in general and bacterial infections in particular. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered Penicillin that started the started the so-called “golden age of antibiotic”. However, later in course of time the underuse, overuse and misuse of antibiotics in medical and veterinary practice led toemergence of drug-resistant pathogens resulting in phenomenon called antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In last few decades AMR has evolved silently and now threatening the human and animal health and has acquired the potential to be a next pandemic. AMR develops in a microorganism (e.g., bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) when it accumulates genetic changes over time and fails to respond to antibiotic(s) leading to severe illness and mortality due to infection. Although, AMR is an evolutionary event occurring naturally in microbes, but inappropriate use of antibiotics in humans and animal medicine act as key driver to its spread. Global antibiotic consumption increased between 2016 and 2023, with total consumption rising by 16.3% to 34.3 billion defined daily doses (DDDs) in reporting countries and a projected 20.9% increase when extrapolated to nonreporting countries. World Health Organization (WHO) and other authorities have called for coordinated action to address antimicrobial resistance, a threat looming large on horizon. In 2021, there were an estimated 1.14 million deaths attributed directly to Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), with globally another 4.71 million deaths associated with AMR infections. This dataindicates a significant global health burden, with prophecy that AMR deaths could increase dangerously by 2050 if current trends continue. Global Action Plan (GAP) of the WHO highlights the importance of “One Health approach” calling for the joint action in human health, food production, animals and environmental sectors, to achieve better results. In the year 2015, the WHO initiated the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS)to collect, analyze and share AMR data received from all countries. The Global Action Plan on AMR lists five strategic objectives to contain AMR viz., 1. optimizing the use of antimicrobials, 2. preventing infections (including the use of vaccines), 3. strengthening surveillance and research, 4. improving awareness and understanding of AMR, and 5. investing in new medical products. Vaccines stimulate the body’s immune system to recognize and attack specific pathogens and thus can prevent AMR through several ways viz., 1. reduce the incidence of infections leading to reduction in morbidity and mortality, 2. vaccines can prevent secondary bacterial infections e.g. Streptococcus pneumoniae after an initial infection with influenza, 3. produce herd immunity, 4. Prevention of infections resulting in decrease in use of antibiotics that reduces development of AMR. Immunotherapeutics can both combat and be complicated by Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR). Other immunotherapies antibodies, and immune-boosting agents can directly fight AMR by preventing infections and reducing the need for antibiotics.
Introduction A microorganism or microbe is a tiny living thing that can exist as a single cell or in groups of cells. People have suspected the existence of these unseen microbes since ancient times. These single-celled creatures have caused serious infections that often led to deaths and illness. These microorganisms can spread quickly and cause big outbreaks of disease. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin. This discovery started the development of one of the most important groups of medicines in medical history. In the next three decades, many different types of antimicrobial drugs were developed. In his Nobel Prize speech, Fleming warned that using penicillin too much might one day lead to bacteria becoming resistant to it, which would be a major problem. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the biggest public health challenges today. Many of the microbes that cause diseases, like bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, no longer respond to common antimicrobial drugs such as antibiotics, antivirals, and antiprotozoals. Antimicrobial resistance is when a microbe becomes able to survive and grow even when treated with medications that used to work on it. Antibiotic resistance is a type of AMR, but it only applies to bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. Resistant microbes are harder to treat, and doctors may need to use other medicines or higher doses. These options can be more expensive and have more side effects. Microbes that resist multiple antimicrobials are called multidrug resistant (MDR). Those that are resistant to almost all drugs are sometimes called ‘superbugs’. Antimicrobial prophylaxis is used by doctors to prevent infections, but it should only be used when it’s really needed to avoid unnecessary costs, side effects, and the development of resistance. Antimicrobial prophylaxis can be used to prevent a first infection or to stop an infection from coming back or reactivating.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an escalating global concern, rendering many once-effective antimicrobials useless and threatening modern medicine’s foundations [1]. RNA-based therapies offer precision, programmability, and modularity—tailoring interventions directly to microbial genetic machinery [2, 3]. Main RNA-based modalities include • Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs): Short synthetic single-stranded RNAs that bind complementary mRNA in bacteria to inhibit translation or induce RNase H–mediated degradation [15]. • RNA Interference (RNAi): Though classically applied to eukaryotes, siRNAs or crRNAs delivered via nanoparticles (also termed “nanoantibiotics”) can silence microbial resistance or virulence genes while the carrier materials physically damage microbial membranes— enhancing lethality [3, 4,5]. • CRISPR-Cas Systems: Adapted as antimicrobials, CRISPR-Cas tools can precisely target and cleave resistance genes in pathogens via conjugative plasmids or phages [6]. • Ribozymes / External Guide Sequences (EGSs): Engineered noncoding RNAs that harness RNase P or ribozyme activity to degrade specific bacterial mRNAs [16]. Key strengths • Target specificity—can silence essential microbial or resistance genes while sparing beneficial microbiota. • Rapid design and adaptability—once delivery systems are in place, targeting new genes requires sequence change alone. • Synergy potential—combining gene silencing with antibiotics or physical antimicrobial actions increases efficacy.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) constitutes a profound global health crisis, jeopardizing the efficacy of antibiotics and posing a severe threat to the foundation of modern medical practice. The rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, which exhibit resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics, has significantly escalated the global burden of infectious diseases, complicating treatment protocols and increasing morbidity and mortality rates. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), AMR could lead to 10 million deaths annually by 2050 if current trends continue, accompanied by economic losses projected to reach trillions of dollars due to prolonged hospitalizations, increased healthcare costs, and reduced productivity. The traditional antibiotic development pipeline has stagnated, hampered by scientific complexities, high financial costs, and stringent regulatory frameworks, resulting in a critical shortage of novel antimicrobial agents. This necessitates the exploration of innovative strategies to combat AMR and preserve the utility of existing antibiotics. Among these strategies, Crispr-Cas (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and Crispr-associated proteins) systems have emerged as a groundbreaking gene-editing platform with transformative potential for addressing AMR. Initially identified as a bacterial adaptive immune mechanism, Crispr-Cas has been repurposed to enable precise targeting of genetic elements, offering novel therapeutic, diagnostic, and environmental solutions. This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of Crispr-Cas systems in the context of AMR, exploring their molecular mechanisms, diverse applications, current limitations, and future prospects across clinical, agricultural, and environmental domains. By leveraging the precision and programmability of Crispr-Cas, researchers aim to develop targeted interventions that mitigate the spread of resistance while minimizing collateral damage to beneficial microbial communities.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a critical global health threat, diminishing the effectiveness of antibiotics against bacterial infections. Conventional strategies to counter AMR—including antibiotic stewardship programs and the development of new drugs—are often slow, expensive, and labor intensive. However, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) present ground breaking alternatives to address this challenge. By leveraging advanced computational techniques, AI can significantly speed up the discovery of novel antibiotics, enabling researchers to identify promising drug candidates more efficiently than traditional methods. Additionally, ML algorithms enhance treatment optimization by analyzing patient data to recommend personalized antibiotic regimens, reducing misuse and resistance risks. AI also strengthens surveillance systems by processing vast datasets— such as genomic sequences and electronic health records—to detect emerging resistance patterns in real time. These capabilities allow for proactive interventions, helping healthcare providers and policymakers stay ahead of AMR outbreaks. Together, AI and ML offer a transformative approach to mitigating AMR, combining speed, precision, and scalability to combat one of the most pressing medical challenges of our time. AI in Antibiotic Discovery One of the most promising applications of AI in AMR mitigation is in antibiotic discovery. Traditional drug development is costly and time-consuming, often taking over a decade [1]. Machine learning models can analyse vast datasets of chemical compounds to predict their antibacterial properties. For example, researchers at MIT used deep learning to identify halicin, a novel antibiotic effective against drug-resistant bacteria. AI-driven platforms can also repurpose existing drugs, reducing the time needed for clinical trials [2]. Fig. 1: AI cyclic interface in antibiotic discovery Predictive Analytics for Resistance Patterns AI-powered predictive analytics enables early detection of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) patterns by processing clinical, genomic, and epidemiological data. Machine learning models analyse electronic health records (EHRs) [3] and bacterial genome sequences to identify emerging resistance threats in real time. These predictive insights allow hospitals to take proactive measures— such as optimizing antibiotic prescriptions—before resistant strains spread. Beyond clinical settings [4], AI models assist public health agencies in forecasting outbreaks and strategically deploying resources. By integrating large-scale datasets, these systems enhance surveillance, enabling faster, datadriven decisions to curb AMR progression. This approach not only improves patient outcomes but also supports global efforts in combating antibiotic resistance through smarter, pre-emptive interventions [5].
Introduction The safety of meat and its derivatives is a paramount concern in the dynamic realm of food trade. Consumers demand food products that are not only affordable and possess an extended shelf life but are also of high safety standards. Consequently, meat inspections require strict adherence to good manufacturing practices and safety labelling that aligns with regulatory standards. Food-borne pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter spp., and Vibrio spp., are responsible for numerous illnesses, thereby exerting a significant impact on public health and the economy. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), food contaminated with pathogens, chemicals, and allergens results in 600 million cases of food-borne illnesses and approximately 400,000 deaths globally each year. Furthermore, 56 million individuals die annually, with about 7.7% of the global population affected by foodborne diseases. Meat and meat products are essential sources of nutrients for humans, providing high-quality protein, essential amino acids, B vitamins, and minerals. However, due to their high-water activity and nutrient content, they also create a conducive environment for spoilage microorganisms and food-borne pathogens. Until a few decades ago, the meat industry was largely dominated by the unorganized sector, with limited access to knowledge that could enhance productivity. However, in the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) era, meat entrepreneurs have succeeded in increasing productivity, although they have faced challenges in ensuring product quality that aligns with the legislative standards of numerous developed and developing countries. The use of antibiotics as antimicrobial growth promoters in animal food production has been a contentious issue, as their unauthorized application has inadvertently contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria within the food chain. Recently, the United States Trade Representative’s office estimated that international trade has expanded significantly since the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1947. The establishment of the WTO in 1995 further facilitated trade in animal-origin foods and live animals between nations. However, the emergence and re-emergence of diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria have become a significant concern in this new pattern of food trade. Some of these pathogens are so virulent that they were not previously reported. According to a 1998 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the annual cost of foodborne illnesses in the United States is nearly 10 billion US dollars. The bacterial pathogens most commonly associated with illnesses from beef products include Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus. Interest in Escherichia coli O157: H7 increased following a highly publicized food poisoning outbreak linked to undercooked beef patties in the United States in 1993, although it was largely confined to North America until the mid-1990s. Similarly, multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhimurium DT-104 has spread widely since it was first identified in the United Kingdom. In India, the incidence of Salmonella in red meat was recorded at up to 9%. These potentially harmful bacterial pathogens can reside on the hides or in the intestinal tracts of foodproducing animals or may originate indirectly through cross-contamination or the processing environment. Other emerging foodborne diseases include Listeriosis, which has spread throughout France and Canada, where meat and meat products have been implicated as sources of Listeria monocytogenes. Similarly, Staphylococcal food poisoning or food intoxication syndrome, first reported in 1894, has become a global issue in the meat industry.
Our animal companions are our family members. We want the best for them and want them to be healthy and happy. However, just as it is with everyone else, our companion animals can also fall ill and suffer from emotions such as grief, fear, and anxiety. And while we follow all expert medical advice, sometimes we may wish for something more – something that will make life easier for them as well as us. This is where the concept of energy healing for animals comes in – to comfort and support our animal companions. With joy, we watch them relax with a sigh; we see our nervous dogs calm down, and those recovering from an acute illness get back on their paws in no time. Energy healing for animals involves a holistic approach to ensure the physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being of our animal friends. It is based on the fundamental concept that just like us, our animal companions too have a subtle energy layer, and they too have vital life-force energies or Prana or Qi. And just like us, they, too, have chakras and meridians through which the Qi flows. Energy healing is a set of powerful techniques practiced to calm and restore the balance of the body. This system is largely based on the removal of energetic blocks and helps restore the body’s energy levels. It is crucial for those living with companion animals to understand the importance of energy healing for their animal companions, as it encompasses a broad range of alternative and complementary therapies designed to support the natural healing process of animals. Here are some proven, popular, non-invasive energy healing techniques that bring relief and comfort to companion animals. 1. Animal Reiki: The word Reiki means “mystical energy.” The system of Reiki for healing was revealed by Japanese Buddhist practitioner Mikao Usui in the early 1900s. And while it was initially meant for humans, practitioners soon discovered that animals responded much more swiftly and effectively to this gentle, non-invasive energy work. 2. EFT Tapping: This involves tapping on specific points on the body to free up emotional blocks. EFT Tapping for animals brings powerful transformations when an animal is struggling with emotional distress, such as grief over the loss of a loved human or animal. 3. Scalar Wave Healing: Scalar Wave was discovered in the 1900s by James Maxwell and later Nicolas Tesla. Scalar Wave harnesses the healing power of high vibrational frequencies meeting to create a standing wave, and practitioners use this to bring about healing at a cellular level. 4. Shamanic Healing: In this ancient technique, practitioners work with the elements of nature, such as plants, trees, and stones, as well as beings in other dimensions, to bring about healing. Shamanic healing can reach beyond space and time and has been very effective in releasing old trauma or emotions that are often hidden beneath layers of survival mechanisms. 5. Healing Mantra: Ayurveda, the Indian system of medicine, advocates about different types of Chikitsa. Daivavyapashraya Chikitsa is one of the treatment approaches concerned with Spiritual way of treatment. It includes so many approaches, amongst all Mantra Chikitsa is described in Ayurveda at various places as a potent approach. It is discussed for both the healthy and unhealthy conditions. Mantra comes from Sanskrit word which means sacred message or text, spell. The word Mantra is derived from Man+Tra, man—mananaat---just by chanting and tra—trayate---- we can protect ourselves. Means, just by chanting one can save himself in the universe. i.e. it is saved from onset of disturbances. Mantras are the words loaded with power and sounds capable of penetrating our body into deep levels. Mantra chikitsa is the ancient science originated from Vedas, this is a parallel science to Ayurveda also called alternative medicine system.Mantra Chikitsa is one among the Daivavyapashraya Chikitsa highlights the importance of concept of Mantra. In Atharva Veda and Kaushikasutra, the two most ancient and authentic sources of Daivavyapashraya. Mantra Chikitsa is mainly used for both preventive and curative aspect. It is also used for the enhancement of the Gunas of Aushadhi. Effect of Mantra is described as Prabhavajanya action. Prabhava means the specific and characteristic action of substances, it is called as Acintya. Mantra Chikitsa cure the Karmaja Vyadhi and Agantuja Vyadhi. In the Vedic period, Daivavyapashraya Chikitsa was followed in various rituals.
Introduction It is reasonable to consider that the history of humanity has been marked by two transformational revolutions: the cognitive revolution (35,000 to 70,000 years ago), when Homo sapiens began to manifest our capacity to abstract, imagine things that did not exist and give meaning to non-representational thoughts; the agricultural revolution (10,000 to 12,000 years ago), when Homo sapiens stopped being a hunter/collector to settle on land, cultivating the soil and raising domesticated animals. It was possibly the beginning of property ownership, monogamy, family and also when malaria, and other diseases more easily spread in communities, became consolidated as human diseases. It was with the cognitive revolution that things changed and our previously acquired abilities of creating images and dealing with abstract concepts started to push humankind to become the “Dominant Mammal” controlling all other animals and Earth’s environments. Progressively, man learned to work with wood, iron and all minerals extracted from the soil, produced clothes with leather and wool from animals, linen and cotton from plants, silk from insects, and latter from natural oils created arts, jewellery, dynamite, electricity, vaccines, transatlantic ships, locomotives, cars, computers, antibiotics, contraceptives, robots, portable cell phones, informatics, bioengineering, internet, artificial intelligence, social networks and many other innovations . Not surprisingly, conscious of all these attributes, man felt important, central and essential, falling into the temptation of judging himself a magnificent creature with all rights and that became deep rooted in some cultures. For the pleasure,comfort, sophistication and power, man interfered with and altered the environment in a so ambitious and predatory manner that he modified and compromised his and other species living conditions, causing also climate changes that threaten his own survival on the planet. With time, it became clear that, in addition to this entirely anthropocentric “Ego’s” point of view, there might be another perspective fromwhich one can perceive the world and interact with it. An ecological “Eco’s” perspective corresponds to a compassionate view (how can we contribute to the greater good and make the world a better place) of the Globe. After all the damage done to nature by man, moving from the socalled Ego to the Eco attitude became a mandatory needConcerning Global Health, for a long-time, human health has benefited by sacrificing the “health” of wild ecosystems (e.g., deforestation and conversion of wilderness to farmland, damming of water for irrigation, destruction of swamps and dislocation and jeopardy of wild species) which reflects a protectionist vs utilitarian conflict, over the question of whether to put human domination of the biosphere on hold or whether to embrace it .It hides unaddressed concerns about the value of (macroscopic) life (human, animal or plant), the definitions of health and wellbeing (human, animal, plant and environmental) and their relative importance. This has hampered the development and acceptance of a One Health (OH) understanding of Global Health.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is increasingly recognised as a “silent pandemic,” threatening global health and development. In 2019 alone, bacterial AMR was directly responsible for 1.27 million deaths and contributed to nearly 5 million more worldwide. Projections warn that by 2050, unchecked AMR could result in 10 million annual deaths and impose a staggering economic burden of USD 100 trillion. A major driver of this crisis is the indiscriminate and often prophylactic use of antibiotics in livestock production systems, which account for a majority of global antimicrobial consumption. The One Health framework—emphasising the interconnectedness of animal, human, and environmental health—offers a strategic pathway for mitigating AMR. It requires dismantling sectoral silos and fostering collaboration among veterinarians, physicians, public health authorities, food safety regulators, and environmental scientists. Against this backdrop, NDDB has positioned itself as a frontrunner in India by embedding One Health principles into large-scale field programmes. Since 2014, NDDB has progressively promoted alternative medicine for bovine mastitis control under its Mastitis Conrol Project (MCP), subsequently expanding in 2017–18 into a broader Disease Control through Alternate Methods (DCAM) project with Ethnoveterinary Medicine (EVM) as the central pillar. Building Up: From DCAM to DISHA as One Health Strategy Building on the successes of MCP, DCAM, and BCP, NDDB launched the Dairy Integrated Safety and Health Action (DISHA) project for 2025–2030, DISHA consolidates NDDB’s One Health strategy by combining animal health management, zoonotic disease surveillance, and food safety monitoring. Its objectives include: managing bovine cases with EVM, organising farmer awareness programmes, training veterinarians and health workers, screening cattle as well as their owner for brucellosis, and testing bulk milk samples for aflatoxins and antibiotic residues. Importantly, DISHA also addresses emerging food system contaminants such as microplastics, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAs), Bisphenol-A (BPA) and heavy metals, thereby broadening the scope of One Health beyond infectious diseases.
Introduction AMR is a critical global problem that affects human, environmental, and animal health. AMR is a complex problem; it is necessary to look at it from different disciplines to frame it within the One Health approach [Shrestha,2018].The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified AMR as a top ten global public health threat.Globally, there were an estimated 4.95 million deaths associated with bacterial AMR in 2019, including 1.27 million deaths attributable to bacterial AMR [O’Neill, J. (2016)]. The economic impact is equally alarming. The World Bank projects that AMR could lead to an additional US$ 1 trillion in healthcare costs by 2050, and over US$ 1 trillion in annual gross domestic product (GDP) losses by 2030.The One Health approach is defined as a joint effort of various disciplines that come together to provide solutions for human, animal, and environmental health. AMR is linked to each of these three components due to the irresponsible and excessive use of antimicrobials in various sectors (agriculture, cattle raising, and human medicine). Under the pressure of antimicrobial selection, bacteria acquire resistance genes and mobile genetic elements that can spread to other bacteria of the same or different genus. When bacteria acquire resistance to antimicrobials, they also acquire a greater ability to proliferate in animals, humans, and the natural world. Mismanagement of antimicrobials, inadequate infection control, agricultural debris, contaminants in the environment, and migration of people and animals infected with resistant bacteria facilitate the spread of resistance [Collignon,et.,al,2018]. AMR represents a global public health problem, for which epidemiological surveillance systems have been established, aiming to promote collaborations directed at the well-being of human and ani mal health and the balance of the ecosystem. Several international organizations (The World Organisation for Animal Health [OIE], WHO, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]) have joined forces to develop a Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance-WHO. Action taken in this plan included understanding the AMR from surveillance and research. The advisory group established guidelines for AMR surveillance to ensure all countries implement integrated surveillance, which will cover the use and consumption of antimicrobials in the human and animal population. These guide lines will provide a clear understanding of how AMR spreads in different settings and specific areas. It will allow to study the correlation between AMR and antimicrobial use in a different setting (animals, humans, and environment) and to assess the effect of interventions within and between sectors [W.H.O 2015,2017].
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most pressing global health threats, with implications that extend beyond human medicine to animal health, food security, and the environment. In livestock production systems, the misuse and overuse of antibiotics contribute significantly to the development of resistant pathogens. These resistant organisms can spread from animals to humans through direct contact, contaminated food products, and environmental pathways. The containment of AMR in livestock is not solely a technical or regulatory challenge—it is also a social and behavioral issue. Public awareness, education, and behavioural change are key pillars of any effective AMR mitigation strategy. Schools, community networks, and media platforms play vital roles in shaping knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to antibiotic use in livestock. Causes of AMR in Livestock Over-prescription and misuse of antibiotics in veterinary care Use of antimicrobials as growth promoters rather than for therapeutic purposes Poor farm bio-security and hygiene leading to frequent infections Inadequate regulation and over-the-counter sale of antibiotics without veterinary oversight Public Health Impact Transmission of resistant pathogens via the food chain Contamination of soil and water with resistant genes through manure Emergence of zoonotic diseases with limited treatment options
Introduction Animal sector is growing very fast particularly in India as people’s purchasing power is increasing day by day. With increase in income, people’s dietary habit is shifting towards more animal origin products. The use of antibiotics for animal food production is growing very fast and India is the 4th largest country in the world regarding consumption of antibiotics in veterinary and animal husbandry sector. There is urgent need of AMR mitigation strategies to reduce the effect on human and animal health. As per the World Bank AMR can affect the global GDP upto 3.8% by 2050. Most of the countries in the world are very cautious regarding antibiotic residues and rejecting the livestock products which lead to economic loss. Many world agencies/forum such as CodexAMR Guidelines, UN Political Declaration on AMR Guidelines, Global Leaders Group on AMR reiterated judicious use of antibiotics. All-India Network Project on AMR inLivestock and Fisherieswas started in India to reduce the effect of AMR by educational awareness, adoption at field level, surveillance system and diagnosis but it didn’t meet out the desired outcome. Capacity building programmes in the field of AMR by training, reform in curriculum, collaboration from different fields of professionals can mitigate the harmful effect of AMR. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), education and training play pivotal roles in translating knowledge into practical implementation, warranting the inclusion of Antimicrobial Use and AMR as integral components in professional education, postgraduate training, and continuing education within the food and agricultural sectors Training Strategies It involve Antimicrobial Stewardship training for healthcare professionals, public awareness campaigns, farmer education, and veterinary training on responsible antimicrobial use. Other critical elements include fostering collaboration through professional networks, building surveillance capacity, utilizing AI-driven tools for better decision-making, and promoting hygiene and infection prevention to reduce infection incidence and the need for antibiotics. Training for Healthcare Professionals There is substantial evidence that both healthcare workers and members of the public have knowledge gaps about appropriate use of antibiotics and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Surveillance is a prerequisite to estimate the magnitude of the AMR burden and to establish any intervention strategies, such as antimicrobial stewardship. In order to launch successful intervention approaches through cooperative efforts from different stakeholders (e.g., international agencies, human and veterinary medicine sectors, agriculture and animal production industries, and consumers), the existing knowledge gap needs to be addressed first.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most alarming public health challenges of the 21st century, threatening the effectiveness of life-saving drugs and the future of modern medicine. This crisis is not limited to healthcare settings; it spans communities, agriculture, and the environment, impacting every facet of society. India, with its large population, high burden of infectious diseases, unregulated access to antibiotics, and considerable pharmaceutical manufacturing industry, stands at the forefront of the global struggle against AMR. The rise of resistant microbes stems from a complex interplay of factors: overuse and misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals, poor infection prevention practices, lack of sanitation, and environmental contamination from antibiotic waste. As a result, common infections are becoming harder to treat, surgical procedures riskier, and healthcare costs are escalating, all leading to increased morbidity and mortality. Tackling AMR requires robust intersectoral collaboration—no single stakeholder can succeed alone. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), industries, and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives form a critical triad in India’s fight against AMR. NGOs drive grassroots education, advocacy, surveillance, and policy change, often bridging gaps where governmental capacity is limited. The pharmaceutical and healthcare industries, responsible for antibiotic manufacturing, distribution, stewardship, and infection control, play a pivotal role in curbing environmental emissions, supporting responsible use, and promoting the discovery of new treatments. Meanwhile, CSR channels the resources and expertise of corporations towards sustainable, communityfacing projects that promote awareness, improve hygiene, foster stewardship, and drive systemic change.
