Preface The impact of climate change on various environmental components and their interaction has become an emerging global environmental issue for the last few decades. Climate change due to emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide leading to rise in temperature and change in rainfall patterns is going to put adverse effects on human life. It has been assessed that climate will show changing trends on account of a variety of mechanisms and are predicted at an unprecedented rate in decades to come. The greatest task for humankind during this century will be to reconcile the need of growing population which will exert enormous pressure on natural resources. With this demand, it is great challenge before all concern to keep environment clean and sustainable. The impact of climate change on human life will be more severe in decades to come. Under this threat, to keep the environment sustainable we have to chalk out a strategy for adaptation and mitigation of climate change. The scientists in the concerned field have given more attention to evaluate the present state of climate and changes recorded as compare to the past. The climate change models suggested so far project various predictions for the state of water resources, biodiversity, agriculture etc, and for impact on human life.

  Abstract Continental erosion and fluvial transport play an important role enhancing mobilization of organic carbon from soils and transferring this pool to the ocean through downstream rivers and streams. The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system represents one of the largest transporters of terrestrial carbon to ocean. Intensive agriculture in the Ganges basin coupled with atmospheric deposition (AD) of nitrogen may render the soil more prone to erosion loss of carbon and nutrients. The aims of this study were to quantify atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (AD-N) in the watershed and to assess the influence of land use and AD-N on carbon and nitrogen transport in Ganga River. We collected samples in summer low flow along a 1595 km long transect of the river to assess the status of DOC under variable land use and AD-N input and, at monthly intervals along a 35 km long transect to understand seasonal patterns and the influence of local control. Our study shows average deposition of reactive-N (NO3- + NH4+) range from 19.7 kg ha-1yr-1 in upper stretch to 38.6 kg ha-1yr-1 in the middle stretch. The AD-N in lower stretch was almost similar to the values recorded in the middle stretch of the watershed. The average concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) in the river range from 0.62 to 5.3 mg L-1 and 52.0 to 385.6 µg L-1 respectively. The land-derived carbon and nitrogen emerging in surface runoff showed positive correlation with AD-N and the river DOC showed synchrony with land use, AD-N and autochthonous carbon pool. Our data indicate that DOC in Ganga River is rising and the land use together with AD-N is an important driver of rising DOC. We suggest that future climate model should consider large scale regional time series data on changing state of atmosphere-land-water coupling and associated shifts in carbon and nutrient transport of major rivers. This has relevance predicting region specific climate change drivers and preparing action plan for integrated river basin management (IRBM).

Introduction Biomass is a major source of energy in developing countries, particularly in India. Biomass as a fuel used in residential sector of India is a major component of total energy use in India. Type of fuels used in residential sector in India varies with locations and availability of the local fuels and also by way of cooking food in the open fires or in the rural cook stoves (Earthen Chulhas). The majority of the household in the rural sector of the developing countries burns the biomass fuel under traditional open stoves or in advanced closed cook stove (Fullerton et al., 2008). Biomass fuel includes any material of plant or animal origin, which is deliberately burnt by the human being. Approximately, 2 billion people in the developing world use the biomass fuel as the major source of domestic energy (Balakrishnan et al., 2002). Out of residential fuels, 80-90% of the energy requirement in rural India are met with the use of biomass in the form of fuel wood, dung cakes, charcoal and agricultural residue (TEDDY, 2007). Burning of biomass from all these sources is well known to be associated with the emission of smoke/plumes consisting of particulate and gaseous species as these are not energy efficient processes and thus the fuels are not burnt completely. The species emitted and their concentrations depend on the nature of the source of biomass and other factors including the physical parameters associated with the consumption of the biomass. The fate of the initial fire emissions depends strongly on both their composition and the regional state of the atmosphere. Once airborne, the particles begin to grow slightly in size as they age through condensation and coagulation. Despite their high concentrations and widespread distribution in the atmosphere, the sources remain poorly characterized. Biomass burning has drawn global concerns in the past decades for its effects on visibility, human health and global climate by emitting particulate matter (PM) and other gaseous pollutants (Andreae et al., 2005). Biomass burning emits significant global source of PM emissions to the troposphere which leads to deleterious impact on the earth’s atmosphere. It has an impact on the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the formation of photo oxidants and thus on air quality on a regional scale and climate change (Andreae et al., 2005). They also have harmful impact on human health, natural environment and ecological system (Cheng et al., 2000). The various impacts of these emissions have been well studied by Cheng et al. (2000) and Bardouki et al. (2003). Interest in this topic grew when several studies suggested that biomass burning emissions could rival fossil fuel emissions (Crutzen and Andreae, 1990). Biomass burning has received considerable interest (Bowman et al., 2009).

Abstract Cultivation of cash crops of good quality potent to give good economic returns depends largely upon adoption of modern practices in agriculture. The region under test consideration is completely irrigated and cultivates mostly the crops of grapes and sugarcane. A field testing that was carried out for the pumps used by local farmers, revealed glaring inefficiency in pump operation. This is attributed to numerous reasons, the standout of them-being improper pump selection and deviation from operating point. Survey of the farming pattern helped to establish nexus between the energy usages per acre for the two crops. Carbon Footprint was determined for the electricity utilized in these farms. Adoption of selection methodologies and efficient practices would lead to considerable saving in electrical power consumption. The impact of adoption of efficient practices was therefore quantified. Keywords: Agriculture, Carbon Footprint, Pumps

Abstract Climate change is the biggest problem of today, resulting in thawing glaciers, changes in crop yield, and disturbances of water resources not only in India but in the entire world. Crop yield were predicted according mid century (2050s) by using IPCC Scenario A2 and studied impact of climate change. Out of 80 districts of Uttar Pradesh the three were selected for the case study areas namely Meerut, Kanpur and Hamirpur. FAO based model ET0 Calculator 3.1 and Aquacrop 3.1 Plus were used to estimate reference evapotranspiration and crop yields respectively by using two major food crops rice and wheat. Crop yield were estimated the present climatic conditions (2005) and mid-century condition (2050s). According to the comparison of simulation results for present and future scenarios, crop yield of rice and wheat was predicted to increase in the mid- century (2050s). However, food security was predicted to become a threat in future, because the increase in population till the 2050s is projected, and yield was increases in the major food crops. In order to sustain the growing population, there would be required in the future, a large area for growing rice and wheat in comparison to the area presently, to meet the same food availability per capita. Hence, there would be a need to increase the production of the food crops in order to meet the growing demands of food in the study areas. Keywords: Crop yield, Global warming, Future, Production

Abstract Climate variability/change is one of the very significant concerns discussed in the recent two decades. Its impact on air temperature and precipitation has received massive attention worldwide as they affect both the spatial and temporal patterns of water availability. Hence, it is becoming clearer that analysis of trends in air temperature and rainfall is significant in studying the impacts of climate variability/change for water resources planning and management. Therefore, the aim of the study was to detect theannual, seasonal and monthly trends in air temperature and rainfall in the Râmgangâ river basin. Daily air temperature (Bareilly and Moradabad) and rainfall data (Shahajahanpur, Bareilly, Bareilly BPO and Moradabad)of 40 years (1971 to 2010) were used for the study. Non-parametric Mann-Kendall test and theTheil-Sen’s Slope Estimator was used for determination of estimating the trend and magnitude of the trend. Findings revealed that the basin is experiencing a warming trend because of the rise in themaximum and minimum air temperature. In case of rainfall, Moradabad showna significant high positive trend during the monsoon season. This would alter the river run-off in long run if the existing trend continues to persist like this. Keywords: Climate change/Variability, Mann-Kendall test, Theil-Sen’s Slope estimator, Water resource planning

Abstract Nitrogen is an important nutrient for growth and development of plants. Presence or absence of nitrogen often affects the amino acid composition of proteins, which may in turn change its nutritional quality. Increase in the elevated CO2 concentration and temperature associated with future climates are expected to affect the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), growth and grain yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Atmospheric CO2 is steadily rising from the current level of approx 384 µLL-1 and is expected to rises upto 550 µLL-1 by 2050. It is predicted that the global temperature would increase by 1.5- 4.5oC. The main future challenge is to feed nine billion people under an altered climate, as this increase in global temperature would affect, negatively or positively the future crop productivity including wheat depending upon the geographical location. The present book chapter summarizes the potential impact of elevated CO2 and temperature on NUE of Triticum aestivum L.

Abstract While multiple species interact with each other in variable environments, they employ a variety of interaction strategies to withstand variation in environmental conditions. Phenotypic plasticity is one such mean allowing species to cope with environmental challenges often posed by the variation in consumer pressure, disturbances, and predation risks. In response to these and other environmental cues, expressed phenotypes can alter the sign and strength of interactions among species as these responses are often reflected in increased or decreased species competitive or facilitative abilities. Besides phenotypic plasticity, species interactions also depend on continued variation in abundances or densities of interacting species commonly termed as density-dependent interactions. Such density-dependence follows the law of diminishing returns, which means that while an individual species adds a density-dependent weight to the performance of other species, with increasing accounts, at a certain level of interaction it provides diminishing returns resulting in decreased population growth of the species. Thus, species interactions in variable environments hold two interdependent opposing forces: the growth-escalating and the growth-diminishing forces. The first one is resulted from adaptive phenotypic responses to variable environments and the second one is resulted from dynamic changes of abundances or densities of interacting species. Based on this conceptual framework, we describe community dynamics that are shaped by the balance of these two forces in variable environment. By analyzing these dynamics, we then seek underlying mechanism of Grim’s classic humped-back model of productivity-diversity relationship and also provide an alternative explanation for the intermediate disturbance hypothesis. Keywords: Competition, Facilitation, Functional niche, Interaction continuum, Phenotypic plasticity.

Abstract Climatic variability with respect to total annual precipitation, mean maximum and mean minimum temperature as well as phytosociological characteristics of various herbaceous plant species of two distinct landscapes, ie, BudhaPushkar (BP) as sandy and Nasirabad Valley (NV) as rocky gravel, of Central Aravalli region was compared over a long period of time (1957-2012). Analysis of climatic data indicates reduction of total precipitation of 50 years by 1226.2 mm. There has been a ‘shift’ in monsoon season. However, a significant increase (36.8%) in precipitation was noticed during the winter season of last five decades. Data on total mean maximum temperature also showed significant variation. A rise of 2.50C was recorded while compared the periods 1971-1990 and 1991-2011. Study showed a notable increase in the mean maximum and mean minimum temperature in the region. An assessment of changes in plant diversity at two landscapes was carried out over a period of 35 years (1976 and 2012). The phytosociological characteristics were compared for these selected years. It was observed that climatic variability have changed the order of dominants and other species with respect to frequency, density and IVI of herbaceous species at both BP and NV landscapes. Total number of species increase for BP landscape while decreased for NV stands, while numbers of invasive species are increased for both the landscapes over a period of 35 years. Keywords: Climatic variability, Plant diversity, Central Aravalli region, Landscapes, Phytosociological characteristics

Abstract Women are amoungst one of the most vulnerable groups, being impacted by climate change. Socio- cultural barriers and traditionally ascribed roles make them the key person responsible for arranging primary resources such as fuel, water, food which face a serious threat from environmental stresses such as climate change. Women with the potential in terms of experience and a strong body of indigenous knowledge to combat the increased disaster risks enable their families to cope with climate change. To deal with these stressful situations women both at the local and global level adopt various coping strategies. The coping strategies adopted by them generally involves considerable amount of risk taking as they interfered not only with the household work but also with their income generating activities, education of girls and other opportunities for skill development. This chapter gives a comprehensive view of the gendered impact of climate change, as well as the coping strategies of women. The chapter also highlights the need of developing coping mechanisms into adaptive mechanism and strategies to provide a sustainable solution to deal with the issue of climate change. Keywords: Coping strategies, Climate change, Gendered impact, Women

Introduction In the recent years, climate change emerged as the single most pressing problem globally, and accordingly received an increased attention (Berrang-Ford et al., 2011). It is evident that human activities are responsible for the climate change. Natural processes may also lead to climate variability and change. The climate change forecasts resulted from simulation models indicate that the future climate is likely to turn into more capricious nature with more occurrences of extreme events (IPCC, 2013b). Future projections according to the World Bank (2010) reveal the need of raising food production by 1.8% per annum between 2005 and 2050 due to climate change rather than 1% per annum if there were no impact of climate change. The effect of climate change can be seen on the quantity and quality of various components in the global hydrologic cycle (Milly et al., 2005; Bates et al., 2008). In South Asia, vulnerabilities to the climate change are the largest in semi-arid and arid countries, where rainfall is concentrated over a few monsoon months, year to year variations are high, and where water resources are decreasing (Lenton, 2004). Cruz et al. (2007) indicated that climate trends and variability can be characterized by increased air temperatures, which are more pronounced during the winters compared to the summers. Across the entire Asia, both spatial and temporal variability in rainfall trends observed during the past few decades may be attributed to climate change. It is likely to happen that climate change will extend the dry season when negligible or very low flows occur, which particularly affects the water management process due to inability to rely on water storage reservoirs or groundwater resources situated at great depths (Giertz et al., 2006).

Introduction Urbanization, a vital global phenomenon, refers to the process of city establishment and growth; the term commonly connotes population increase in the city from internal growth and immigration as well as their spatial expansion (Revi, 2007). Recent developments, uncontrolled population growth have been linked with the process of urbanization. Urban areas cover 3% of the global land but it gives shelter to nearly 26% of the global population (U.S. De, 2009). Increase in population growth and industrialization is posing threat to natural resources such as land air and water. Anthropogenic factors have led to change in land use pattern, high energy consumption, high level of generation of waste etc. As per UN survey, by 2050, approximately 70 percent of the global population will be living in cities (UN, World Urbanization Prospects, 2014). Unplanned growth is damaging the existing ecosystems along with that causing climate change and loss of biodiversity.

Abstract India’s climate policy and its stand in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have developed through a complex and contradictory interactions between global pressures to take actions in the field of climate change, India’s foreign policy orientation, its environmental practices and various other national factors. India has been under growing pressure from the major developed economies and also from many small developing countries to play a leading role in mitigating climate change in keeping with its economic and political importance. National factors, including the very important consideration of maintaining rapid GDP growth, favours a conservative approach, with emphasis on expanding India’s share of global climate space. India ranks high on global climate change vulnerability because of its 7,500 Kilometre-long coastline, high dependence of its agriculture on monsoon, decreasing availability of freshwater and over-exploitation of ground water resources, presence of large population in cyclone-prone areas, low lying river deltas and fragile ecosystems like partially submerged lands, and not least, because of melting of the Himalayan glaciers, which feed close to 70 percent of India’s river waters. In 2008, India formulated a National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) under international obligations. India’s climate policy has always been the preserve of a small group of individuals protected from societal influence and unaccountable to the public at large. Indian policy makers claim to speak on behalf of those very people who have been consciously excluded from democratic and participatory decision-making. The industrialised economies reluctant to own up to their climate obligation only breeds more cynicism within the Indian society. Whatever the outcome of international conventions on climate change or any kind of global negotiations in the immediate future, India cannot afford to give up on the serious issue of climate change. Keywords: Climate change, Economics, Policy, Agriculture