Preface The Students of B.Sc. (Forestry), B.Sc. (Horticulture) and at PG level need a comprehensive and concise book since a long time. The fundamentals and terminology related to forest & forestry, horticulture and agriculture science. This book will also fulfill the need of students admitted in B.Sc. Forestry, Horticulture & Agriculture. The write-up was prepared keeping in mind the need of entrepreneurs indulge in the plantation programme, to facilitate  various operations in tree culture, horticultural crop production and post plantation management. The usefulness of the book as a reference book to teachers also needs a mention. This book is an attempt to fulfill the need of ready reference in the form of terminology, definitions, concepts and fundamental description of Forestry and Horticulture to facilitate students, teachers, professionals of this fields. The book has also been written to keeping in mind the syllabus of forestry and horticulture courses at UG and PG levels as well as for PSC, UPSC, IFS, ARS, NET etc. exams.     The name of the books, journals, reports, articles, etc. have been consulted while writing the comprehensive book and are given in the bibliography and gratefully acknowledged properly.   I hope the publication will serve a reference book to the teachers, students, entrepreneurs, and ancillary industrialists associated with production of plants, forest trees, flowers, fruits trees, medicinal plants and wildlife management. The practical aspects of the forest & forestry, plantation and plant production will be looked after based on recent techniques includes production of forest & forestry plants.

A horizon: i) The surface soil horizon of a mineral soil having maximum organic matter accumulation, maximum biological activity or eluviation of materials such as iron, aluminium oxides and silicate clays. ii) A mineral horizon that formed at the surface or below an O horizon, obliterating all or much of the original rock structure and (a) characterized by an accumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with the mineral fraction and not dominated by properties characteristic of E horizon or B horizon. See also B horizon, C horizon. Abatement: Refers to reducing the degree or intensity of greenhouse-gas emissions.

B horizon: i) A soil horizon that formed below an A horizon, E horizon, or O horizon, dominated by obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure and showing one or more of the following: a) illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminium, humus, carbonates, gypsum, or silica, alone or in combination; b) evidence of removal of carbonates; c) residual concentration of sesquioxides; d) coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue than the overlying or underlying horizons without apparent illuviation of iron; e) alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides, or both, that forms granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if volume changes accompany changes in moisture content; or f) brittleness. ii) A soil horizon usually beneath the a horizon that is characterized by one or more of the following: a) A concentration of silicate clays, iron and aluminium oxides, and humus, alone or in combination; b) a blocky or prismatic structure, and  c) coatings of iron and aluminium oxides that give darker, stronger or redder colour.

C horizon: i) A horizon or layer, excluding hard bedrock, that is little affected by pedogenic processes and lacks properties of O, A, E, or B horizons —note the material of C horizons may be either like or unlike that from which the solum presumably formed. ii) A mineral horizon generally beneath the soil solum that is relatively unaffected by biological activity and pedogenesis and is lacking properties diagnostic of an a horizon or a b horizon. See also Soil horizon.

Dabbling ducks: Duck species that principally feed in shallow water by “tipping up” or dabbling on the surface.   Damping off: i) The wilting of young seedlings by certain fungi that cause decay of stem, or roots. The major diseases of germinating seeds are grouped under the single name ‘damping off’. It is caused by a number of separate fungi, mainly species of Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Phytophthora. The disease is expressed either by the failure of seedling to emerge or by the death of the seedling shortly after emergence. Protection from this is to allow the surface of the soil to dry before doing additional watering. Sphagnum moss spread thinly over the soil surface is also effective in reducing damping off. ii) A term used to describe the action of parasitic soil fungi, which cause rotting of seedlings before or soon after germination. This can sometimes be avoided by adding sand to the soil mixture to improve drainage, thus preventing the fungi from multiplying rapidly, or by using fungicides. Eucalypts and pine species are particularly susceptible to damping off.

E horizon: A mineral soil horizon in which the main feature is loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials.  Earth Summit: International conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 to discuss issues concerning climate change, world poverty, environment and development, the worlds forest and biodiversity. Ecocentric value: The value of ecological entities irrespective of their usefulness to humans. 

F : Symbol for a generation; F1 the first generation of a hybrid; F2 the second; and so on. F1 : The first filial generation of a cross between two individuals; parental generation (P1) from which experiment starts. F2 : The second filial generation of a cross between two individuals; the offspring resulting from crossing the members of the F1 among themselves. Flayer: The fragmentation layer in the forest floor, immediately below the litter layer, composed of fragmented, partially decomposed organic materials that are sufficiently well preserved to permit identification as to origin.

Game: A species of wildlife hunted or trapped by humans, including upland birds, waterfowl, small game, forbearing, and larger mammals that are within the purview of management. Gamete: i) A mature sex cell, such as sperm/egg used in fertilization. A reproductive cell whose nucleus and often cytoplasm fuses with that of another gamete during fertilization resulting in the formation of a zygote. Gametes are usually differentiated into male and female gametes. ii)  A male or female reproductive cell, typically the product of meiosis, capable of uniting in the process of fertilization with one of the opposite sex.

H layer: The humus layer of the forest floor, consisting largely of well-decomposed, amorphous organic matter.   Habitat: i) The sum of effective environmental conditions under which an organism lives. ii) Often used for the natural range of distribution of a species. iii) The kind of place in which a plant or animal lives, such as forest habitat, grassland habitat etc. iv) The ecosystem in which a plant or animal lives and obtains food and water. v) It refers to a place or ecological community, or a set of ecological communities, in which an organism or population of organisms occurs. vi) The immediate environment occupied by an organism. vii) The natural environment of an organism excluding other living organisms (the biotope). See also Site. viii) The place or environment where an animal (or plant) naturally or normally lives and raises young.

Ideotype: A conceptual model of a plant type that will be best suited to a particular set of circumstances. Ideotypes can be defined in terms of both form and function. There can be ‘isolation’, ‘competition’ and ‘crop’ ideotypes. Illuvial horizon: i) A soil layer in which material from above has been deposited; the layer of accumulation. ii) A soil horizon that receives material in solution or suspension from some other part of the soil. See also Eluviations. Image: Picture or graphical representation. In remote sensing and GIS as a term that describes digital representations of earth features (TWS).

Jalshakti: It is a material (starch based polymer) which can absorb and hold 80-100 times its weight of water. It is a gel on which plant roots lock themselves and tap the water. It can be used on most soils and in all composts to promote vigorous growth and minimise plant stress. It is used by mixing with growing medium at the rate of 1-2% by weight. Plant roots attach themselves to hydrated granules of the chemical and tap their water store. Jalshakti reduces watering needs. Jam: Concentrated fruit pulp with natural fruit flavour where pectin imparts a good set and high sugar concentration (68%) facilitates its preservation.   Jungle: The general Indian term for forest.

Kaolinite: An aluminosilicate mineral of the 1.1 crystal lattice group. Ketchup: Strained concentrated extract of fruit/vegetable which is having spiced vinegar. Keystone species: i) A species that other species depend upon for survival. ii) A species whose impacts on its community or ecosystem are large, and much larger than would be expected from its abundance. iii) A keystone species is one which has a disproportionately large impact on its ecosystem, and its presence affects many other organisms by helping determine the types and numbers of other species in the community. If a keystone species is removed the delicate balance of an ecosystem would be dramatically changed, and the ecosystem itself could collapse. Important pollinators, such as hummingbirds, bats or butterflies, can be keystone species, as so many other species are reliant on them for survival. Predators such as Jaguar, are often keystone species. Jaguars are present in very small numbers in Central and South America, but they play a critical role in keeping populations of other mammals in check. Identifying and protecting keystone species is important for the long term survival of an ecosystem.

L layer: The litter layer of the forest floor, consisting of unaltered dead remains of plants and animals. Land : Land is a broader term than soil. In addition to soil, its attributes include other physical conditions such as mineral diposits and water supply; Location in relation centers of commerce, population, and other land; the site of the individual tracts or holdings; and existing plant cover and works of improvement. Land capability: The suitability of land for use without damage. Land capability (as ordinarily used in the united states) is an expression of the effect of physical land conditions, including climate, on total suitability for use without damage, for crops that require regular tillage, for grazing, for woodland and for wildlife. Land capability involves consideration of the risk of land damage from erosion and from other causes and also difficulties in land use owing to physical land characteristics, including climate.

Macroclimate: The climate of a region. See also Microclimate, topoclimate. Macronutrient: A chemical element necessary in large amounts (usually > 50 ppm in the plant) for the growth of plants. Includes c, h, o, n, p, k, ca, mg, s. ‘Macro’ refers to quantity and not to essentiality of the element. See also Micronutrient. Maggot: Legless larva, especially of a fly. Main effect: The response to different levels of a treatment factor, measured independently of other factors. In a balanced design such as a randomized complete block, the main effects of levels of a treatment factor are estimated by averaging the corresponding responses over all levels of every other factor.

N2O: Nitrous Oxide. Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA): Is represented which is a synthesised auxin. Naphthalene ring/molecule: Two benzene rings condense to give the naphthalene molecule/ring. Natality (birth-rate): i) It refers to the production of new individuals by birth or hatching. The natality rate is the number of young ones produced per female. ii) Refers to number of young individuals born or hatched per unit of time. iii) Refers to an organism or population of organisms that occurs naturally (i.e., independent of human activity) in an area. Natural forest: A forest composed of indigenous trees and not classified as forest plantation. 

O horizon: A soil layer dominated by organic materials occurring at the surface of the soil.  Oblique Aerial Photographs: An oblique photographis one which has been taken with the optical axis of the camera intentionally tilted from perpendicular position obliquely. The degree of tiltfrom the perpendicular further classifies oblique photographs into high oblique photograph and low oblique photograph. A high oblique photograph is one which is taken with the optical axis of the camera making an angle >30° with the vertical axis and which shows the apparent horizon on the photograph.

Palatable: Having a good or at least a tolerable flavour. Some plants, although not poisonous, simply do not taste good and animals avoid them, for example, the leaves of Prosopis juliflora. Others are so highly palatable that establishing the tree can become difficult, for example, Leucaena leucocephala. Hence ‘palatability’. See also Digestibility. Palm: Member of the aracaceae (previously palmae) family, containing over 200 genera and more than 2700 species, many of them economically important for food, fibre, canes, waxes, wood, thatch, and so forth. Typical agroforestry tree.

Qine: A character gradient. A gradual change in one or more characters between adjacent parts of a population. Such variation in a character is called “clinal variation.” See Ecotype; Race. Quadrat: i) An ecological sampling unit of any kind. ii) A small field study unit or sample area, usually a square meter or a milliacre (1/1000th acre) in size, established for the purpose of detailed observation. Quadrangle: A standard map size and scale used by the U.S. Geological Survey (TWS). Quadrat, denuded: A quadrat from which the vegetation has been completely removed at least once.

R1, R2, R3: The symbols used to designate first, second and third irradiation generation. Race: i) A genetic subdivision of a species, with more or less distinct characteristics when grown in a particular environment. Sometimes used to denote a portion of a cline. Differences among races may or may not be adaptive; differences among ecotypes are presumed to be adaptive. Hence, ‘race’ is a more general term than ecotype. ii) A genetically and often geographically distinct mating group within a species; also a group of pathogens that infect a given set of plant varieties.

S1, S2, S3 : The symbols used to designate the first, second/third generation of selfing. S1 is obtained by sowing seeds of so plants and so on. Saccharometer: A type of hydrometer used for finding the concentration of sugar solutions by determining their density; usually graduated to read the percentage direct. Safari Park: Safaris are specialized zoos where the captive animals are housed in any large naturalistic enclosures and the visitors are allowed to enter the enclosure to view the animals in a mechanized vehicle or a predetermined route from close quarters.

Table, normal yield: A standard yield table with which to compare actual yields. The values of a normal yield table are derived as averages of the best producing fully stocked areas for given species, sites, and methods of treatment. Table, stand: A summary table showing number of trees by species and diameter class for any given area. Table, stock: A summary table showing for any given area the volume of trees by species and diameter class.

Ultra freezing: Cryopreservation of seeds immersed in liquid nitrogen (LN2) at a very low temperature, -196ºC, can be used for many seeds provided the moisture content is relatively low, about 8 to 15 percent and the seeds are in sealed containers. Unclassed forest: Forest land owned by Government but not constituted in to a reserved, village or protected forest.   Under bark: Measurement of the diameter or circumference of a trunk or branch made with the bark removed. See also Over bark.

Validation: i) The process of assessing the accuracy for a given purpose of a simulation model by comparing the model’s predictions with independent results. ii) Ground validation is the confirmation of information from satellite imagery or aerial photography. See also Ground truth. Values: Values are characteristics of things that make them more or less desirable, important, or useful. Variability: Absence of uniformity. Quality of differing from the average value. This term is usually used in a general sense and qualified by such words as ‘low’, ‘moderate’, and ‘high’. For quantitative comparisons, the concept of a variance is used.

Wasteland: Land not capable of producing materials or services of values. Water available : The amount of water, plants can extract from unit volume of soil. It is mainly derived from capillary water and corresponds roughly to the water held by the soil between the limits of field moisture capacity and the wilting co-efficient. Water balance: i) The distribution of water in space, and over time, within a system. Where plants are growing on land this means considering rainfall (and also interception loss, stemflow and throughfall), drainage, evapotranspiration, runoff and soil water storage. ii) Balance of input and output of water within a given defined hydrological area such as a basin or a lake, taking into account net changes of storage. 

X1, X2, X3 : The symbols used to designate the first, second and third generation of X-ray treated plants/seeds. Xanthophyll : A carotenoid plant pigment (carotene), yellowish in colour, present in chloroplasts and other plants parts where chlorophyll is absent, It assists in photosynthesis. Xenia: i) The direct influence of foreign pollen on the endosperm due to phenomenon of double fertiliztion which may allow the male parent to affect the appearance of seed. ii) Changes due to effect of foreign pollen in visible characters of endosporem, e.g. Maize- when variety with white endosperm is pollinated by one with deep yellow endosperm, endosperm of resulting seed is pale yellow.

Yaw: Aircraft rotation around the vertical axis (NCRST). Yeasts : Unicellular micro-organisms, (fungi) producing zymase (enzyme), which converts sugars into alchohol and CO2. A single-celled ascomycete fungus, economically important in capable of fermentation and an important source of vitamins. Yield: Plant part harvested and the quantity of it. In agriculture, necessarily related to a specified crop or crops or to a group of animals or to an area, and to a period of time. For multipurpose trees, the amount of each specified part harvested. See also Production.

Zero energy cool chamber : Zero energy cool chamber storage significantly delays the rate of increase in physiological loss of weight (PLW) of the fruits stored in cool chamber 30% (mango) to 70% (banana) lower than that of the fruits stored in ambient conditions. Cool chamber storage extended the storage life of mango by 3 to 6 days and that of banana by 5 to 8 days over those in ambient conditions.

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