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IMMUNOLOGY

Dushyant Kumar Sharma
  • Country of Origin:

  • Imprint:

    NIPA

  • eISBN:

    9789389571066

  • Binding:

    EBook

  • Number Of Pages:

    334

  • Language:

    English

Individual Price: 3,150.00 INR 2,835.00 INR + Tax

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Immunology is the study of immunity or immune system, the system which is involved in the protection of the body from various types of infections. When a foreign substance invades the body, the body evokes various mechanisms to protect itself. To comprehend the subject like immunology, it is essential to study it in its all aspects. This book is a unique approach to understand the fundamentals and emerging trends of immunology in a very simple and self-explanatory form. The book is divided into twenty s covering all important areas of immunology which are essential for proper understanding of the subject. Besides covering fundamental concepts of immunology, there is a separate on Immunotechniques which are commonly used in laboratories. A comprehensive Glossary of important terms has also been included in the book for quick reference.

0 Start Pages

Preface Immunology is a fast growing branch of biology which is directly concerned with the health and well-being of human beings. A basic understanding of the subject is very essential for every student of life science. It is a branch of biology which deals with the immune system of the body , the system which protects us from various types of infections. Though a number of books are available on the subject but still there is a need for a book which is simple yet concise, covering all essential concepts. This book is a unique approach to understand the fundamentals and emerging trends of immunology. The aim is to provide up to date knowledge to the readers in a simple and lucid manner.  The book has been divided into twenty chapters covering all important areas of immunology which are included in the syllabi of various Universities and are essential for proper understanding of the subject. A large number of simple, hand drawn and self explanatory illustrations would help the students to grasp the concepts firmly and deeply.  At the end of each chapter important facts have been summarized as Points to Remember.

 
1 Introduction

Everyone on this earth wishes to have a healthy life free from all ailments, stress and strain. But it is a common observation that some of us are more susceptible to diseases and fall victim of many infections while others have the capacity to resist many such infections. They are not so much susceptible to diseases. Is there anything which distinguishes them from others? An organism is made up of organs and organs systems. Like many other organ systems, in the body there is a system which is concerned with the protection of the body from infections.

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2 Anatomy of the Immune System

Like any other organ system in the body, immune system comprises of various organs and cells. The major component of the immune system is the lymphocytes which constitute lymphoid system. The lymphoid organs are classified into two categories: primary and secondary lymphoid organs. Primary lymphoid organs: These are the organs where B and T lymphocytes undergo maturation. Bone marrow and thymus are the primary lymphoid organs. These are the organs where lymphocytes differentiate, proliferate, get selected and mature into functional cells.

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3 Antigens

The main purpose of the immune system is to protect the body from foreign substances, diseases or infections. When the body is exposed to a microbe or a foreign substance (antigen), the body makes some response which is called immune response. The purpose of immune response is to recognize, neutralize and eliminate the antigens from the body. Generally, the term immunogen is also used for antigen. Both, antigen and immunogen are used as synonyms but specifically, they are different from each other.

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4 Antibodies

Antibodies are a group of glycoproteins having a globular compact structure. They are known as immunoglobulins. On the basis of their experiments, Tiselius and Kabat, in 1939, demonstrated that most antibodies are found in the g globulin fraction of serum proteins. When serum from rabbit, immunized with ova albumin, was subjected to electrophoresis, it showed a peak for g globulin (Fig. 4.1). Studies have revealed that the major part of IgG is found in the g globulin fraction of the serum proteins. Other fractions, a and b, too, have other immunoglobulins along with small part of IgG.

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5 Antigen-Antibody Interaction

Antigen-antibody interaction is very specific one in which an antibody recognizes an antigen through complementarities of shapes on paratope and epitope.  It is like lock and key, as occurs in case of enzyme-substrate reaction. It does not involve covalent linkage rather a spatial complementarity occurs between antigen and antibody. For example, when antibodies, raised against m-amino benzene sulphonate, are tested for their ability to bind with ortho-, meta- and para-isomers of the hapten, the antibodies show highest strength with meta than ortho- isomer.  Antibodies show poor reactivity with para isomer. This is because though chemically all these molecules are same but structurally they are different.

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6 T Lymphocytes and B Lymphocytes

All blood cells arise from a basic cell called the hematopoietic stem cell. Stem cells are undifferentiated embryonic cells.They are self renewing and their population by cell division. Stem cells have the ability to develop into any type of blood cell. The formation of blood cells begins in the embryonic yolk sac during the first week of development. Every mature cell is derived from the same type of stem cell. In contrast to an unipotent cell which differentiates into a single cell type, a hematopoietic stem cell is multipotent or pluripotent. In the mammalian embryo, the blood corpuscles are normally formed in yolk sac, liver, spleen and thymus gland.

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7 Humoral Immune Response

The immune system protects the body from harmful substances by recognizing and responding to antigens. Antigens are the protein molecules which are present on bacteria, virus, fungi or some other microorganisms.Some toxins can also be antigens. These antigens are recognized by immune system. The destruction of antigens by producing antibody is called antibody-mediated immune response. As antibodies are present in the body fluids i.e. humors,this type of response is called humoral immune response.

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8 Cell-Mediated Immunity

Cell mediated immune response performs different functions in protecting the immune system. When antigens are destroyed by cells, without producing antibodies, the immunity is called cell-mediated immunity (CMI) or cellular immunity. In this immunity T cells play a major role. The principal role of cell mediated immunity is to detect and eliminate the cells that have intracellular pathogens. When the antigen remains inside the cell the antibody cannot handle them. The intracellular pathogens are controlled by cell- mediated immunity. CMI is invited by the recognition of antigens by T cells. T cell lymphocytes recognize protein antigens of intracellular microbes that are displayed on the cell surface of infected cells. It is also important for elimination of cells which express foreign MHC molecules. Antigen specific and nonspecific cells can contribute to the cell-mediated immune response. The activities of both specific and non-specific components usually depend on effective local concentration of cytokines.

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9 Complement

The complement system is a group of about 20 heat labile plasma proteins which constitute nearly 10% of total serum proteins. These are important in activation of phagocytes, control of inflammation and cytolysis. They form one of the major immune defense systems of the body. The complement system plays important role both in innate and adaptive immune system. The main functions of complement are chemotaxis; opsonization and cell activation; immune clearance of immune complexes from circulation; lysis of target cells; triggering and amplification of inflammatory reactions and development of antibody responses. Evolutionary, the system is very ancient and is present even in invertebrate organisms like starfish and worms.

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10 Major Histocompatibility Complex

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is a closely linked cluster of genes which have codes for cell surface proteins known as  MHC molecules. These molecules have very important role in presentation of processed antigens to the T cells in initiation of an immune response as T cells recognize an antigen only when it is presented along with MHC molecule. These are highly polymorphic and are the major barrier to organ/tissue transplantation. All vertebrates have MHC. MHC differs among members of a species and are thus called alloantigens. MHC participates in the development of both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.

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11 Cytokines

Cytokines are the chemical messengers that are involved in interactions between the cells of innate and adaptive immune responses. They are secreted by leukocytes and many other cells in the body. They are low molecular weight proteins or glycoproteins which are produced in response to various kinds of stimuli. Cytokines have important role in immune and inflammatory responses.  Their functions are not limited to immune system only.They also stimulate the development of hematopoietic cells and also act as therapeutic agents.

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12 Hypersensitivity

The immune system has been designed to provide protection to the body from various diseases. But the same system which is aimed to provide protection may sometimes become harmful to the body and may even life-threatening. There are situations when immune response against harmless and inert antigens is exaggerated and actually causes diseases. Such a condition is called hypersensitivity or commonly as allergy. Though the term ‘hypersensitivity’ indicates an increased response but the immune response is not always heightened, instead it may be an inappropriate response to an antigen.

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13 Immune Response to Infections

Infection refers to the invasion of harmful microorganisms into the body and causing disease. The most important function of the immune system is to protect the body of the host against various viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. The grounds of immune surveillance stand on the basis of innate and specific immunity that build up against the evasive mechanisms of the disease causing organisms. Infectious disease is result of a complex interaction between  the host and the microbes. Evasions of protective immunity by the parasites critically determine the survival and pathogenicity of the microbes. The invasion of the body by harmful microorganisms is called infection. Infections are dangerous in any part of the body. Microorganisms spread vary easily into the blood stream and cause blood poisoning which is called septicemia.

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14 Vaccines

One of the greatest achievements in science is the development of vaccines. Vaccines have been revolutionary for the prevention of infectious diseases. They have prevented a large number of deaths caused, every year, by dreadful diseases like smallpox, polio, hepatitis etc. Diseases like smallpox and polio have been successfully eradicated by vaccination. Normally, when the body encounters a microbe, both humoral and cytotoxic immune responses are induced to neutralize its effect. In addition to eliminate the invader, body forms memory cells which help the body to protect itself from the same pathogen, in future. Vaccines not only function to kill the pathogens but they also stimulate the body to form memory cells which provide immunity against a specific pathogen

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15 Tolerance

Immunity is defined as the resistance to infection. This is carried out by the process of identification and removal of non-self material. In contrast to this, our body has to maintain immune tolerance to our own cells and tissues and develop the ability to distinguish these self-antigensfrom non-self (foreign) antigens. Tolerance means unresponsiveness of the immune system to an antigen. Immune tolerance is the process by which the immune system does not destroy an antigen. Tolerance can be either natural or induced.

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16 Transplantation Immunology

Transplantation refers to the implantation of a tissue or organ from one site  to another site in an individual or from one individual to another.It involves implanting of organs or grafting of tissues to repair defects and to stimulate regeneration. Auto-transplantation or autoplasty of the skin, cartilage, bone, muscle, tendon, nerve and fatty tissue is used in plastic and cosmetic surgery. The replacement of a diseased organ by a transplant of a healthy tissue is called transplantation.

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17 Tumor Immunology

A tumor is said to be an abnormal growth of cells to form a lump or mass of transformed cells. This growth occurs due to loss of regulatory control of cell division. The majority of cells and organs have a balance between cell renewal and cell death. A cell has a particular life span;when it dies a new cell is generated. In normal condition, this system is regulated through cell cycle and cell division but at the time of any abnormality this growth mechanism is totally disturbed and failed. These cells give rise to clone of the cells and eventually produce tumor.

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18 Immunodeficiencies

The well-being of a person depends on his immune system. Any deficiency in any component of immune system may lead to defects in the normal functioning of his body and makes him more susceptible to diseases. The immunodeficiency may be either in specific components (B cells or T cells) or nonspecific component (phagocytes and complement) of the immune system.

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19 Autoimmunity

One of the characteristics of the immune system is to recognize and discriminate self from the non-self antigens.  But, sometimes, there is a failure to discriminate between self and non-self antigens in the body and an autoimmune response occurs. Body starts producing antibodies against its own cells/antigens. These antibodies are called autoantibodies and this state is called autoimmunity.

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20 Immunotechniques

Many techniques are used in immunology to detect specific proteins (antigens) or antibodies in biological samples. These techniques are called immunotechniques. These methods are used for research and diagnostic purpose in many fields such as microbiology, biochemistry, endocrinology, hematology and in pathological laboratories. The techniques can be used to estimate proteins, drugs, hormones and toxic substances in a sample. Immunological techniques are highly specific, precise and reliable. These methods are simple and safe. Antigen and antibody reaction is highly specific in nature and this forms the base of the immunological methods. There are many immunotechniques which are used for the qualitative and quantitative estimation of antigens and antibodies in a sample. Some of commonly used techniques in immunology are:

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21 End Pages

Glossary Acquired Immunity: Immunity which is acquired after birth. It may be natural or artificial and active or passive. Acute Phase Protein: A group of serum proteins which increase during infection. Adjuvant: A substance which is used to increase the immune response to an antigen. AFCs (antibody forming cells): See, plasma cells.  Affinity: Strength of binding between an antigen determinant (epitope) and antibody binding site. Agglutination: Clumping of particles e.g. blood cells, in an antigen-antibody reaction. AIDS: Refers to Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. It is a disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).  The virus attacks on the CD4 cells of the immune system.  Allergen: An antigen responsible for producing allergic reactions by inducing IgE synthesis. Allergy: Response of the body against the substance (allergen) which is normally harmless. Alloantigens: Polymorphic antigen determinants which differ among members of the same species because of genetic variation. Allogeneic: Genetically dissimilar within the same species. Allograft: A tissue transplant between two genetically different individuals of the same species. Allotype: A set of allotypic determinants which vary in different members of the same species.

 
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