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ABIOTIC STRESS TOLERANCE IN CROP PLANTS: BREEDING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

Bidhan Roy
  • Country of Origin:

  • Imprint:

    NIPA

  • eISBN:

    9789389571356

  • Binding:

    EBook

  • Number Of Pages:

    558

  • Language:

    English

Individual Price: 3,850.00 INR 3,465.00 INR + Tax

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Abiotic stresses have become an integral part of crop production. One or other persist either in soil, water or in atmosphere. The information in the areas of injury and tolerant mechanisms, variability for tolerance, breeding and biotechnology for improvement of crop plants against abiotic stresses are lying unorganized in different articles of journals and edited books. This information is presented in this book in organized way with up-to-date citations, which will provide comprehensive literatures of recent advances. More emphasis has been given to elaborate the injury and tolerance mechanisms, and development of improved genotypes against stress environments. This book also deals with the plants’ symptoms of particular abiotic stress, reclamation of soil and crop/cropping pattern to over come the effect of adverse condition(s). Each has been laid out with systematic approaches to develop abiotic stress tolerant genotypes using biotechnological tools. Use of molecular markers in stress tolerance and development of transgenic also have been detailed. Air pollution and climate change are the hot topic of the days. Thus, the effect of air pollution and climate change on crop plants have been detailed in the final three s of this book. Under abiotic stress, plant produces a large quantity of free radicals (oxidants), which have been elaborated in a separate ‘Oxidative Stress’. This book has been divided into seven major parts- physical stress (salt), water stresses (drought and waterlogging), temperature stresses (heat and cold), metal toxicities (aluminium, iron, cadmium, lead, nickel, chromium, copper, zinc etc) and non-metal toxicities (boron and arsenic), oxidative stress, and finally atmospheric stresses (air pollution, radiation and climate change). Hope, this book will be of greater use for the students and researchers, particularly Plant Breeders and Biotechnologists as well as the Botanists, to understand the injury and tolerance mechanisms, and subsequently improvement of crop genotypes for abiotic stresses.

0 Start Pages

Preface The load of abiotic stresses on crop production is being incremented gradually by the directed demands of human beings for their food and luxuries. The ground water is depleting fast due to both intensive and extensive cultivation during off-monsoon periods as well as supplementation of water through irrigation during monsoon. Poor quality irrigation water and depletion of ground water increased salinity in arid and semi-arid zones. Intensive cultivation and heavy feeder crops lead deficiency of some nutrients and toxicity of others. The industrial growth and increase in vehicles created heavy metal toxicity in many industrial areas. In combination of industrial growth and improvement of transportation systems facilitate aggressive air pollution, which subsequently forcing climate change around the globe. All of these exert greater influence on plant growth and crop productivity. Growing population in both developing and underdeveloped countries already has alarmed to increased food grain production. The productivity of major staple food crops have reached to a plateau. There is very little scope to increase crop production area too. Therefore, more emphasis is required to use problem soils effectively. The soil reclamation is a costly affair and it is temporary. Development of crop genotypes tolerant/resistant to the adverse conditions is the only solution of such problem. To develop tolerant/resistant plant genotypes, the plant breeder or plant biotechnologist should have knowledge regarding the injury and tolerance mechanisms in plants for specific stress and plant symptoms to know the nature of abiotic stress, breeding methods and biotechnological approaches. This book deals with those above mentioned requirements. Apart from breeding and biotechnology, each chapter deals with crop management under specific stress environment.

 
1 Introduction

Abiotic stresses are major constraints for many crop plants in specific areas over the globe which limits the crop production. Dudal (1976) estimated that only 10% of world’s arable land may be categorized as free from stress. The rapid change in environmental conditions likely to override the adaptive potential of plants, this environmental changes mainly originated from anthropogenic activities, which has caused soil and air pollution, plant are exposed to natural climatic or edaphic stresses, such as, high irradiation, heat, chilling, freezing, drought, excess water and waterlogging and nutrient imbalance. Among abiotic stresses drought is the main abiotic factor as it affects 26% of arable area (Table 1.1). Water stress is a single most severe, limitation to the productivity of rice in the rainfed ecosystem (Widawgky and O’Toole, 1990). Mineral toxicity/deficiencies are second in importance. Among mineral toxicity, salinity is wide spread and is estimated to affect 10% of the world land surface (Richards, 1995).

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2 Salt Tolerance

2.1. INTRODUCTION Salt stress has become an ever increasing threat to food production. It is a major factor limiting the crop productivity in the arid and semi-arid areas of the world (Ashraf, 1994; Foolad and Jones, 1992) and it affects about 10% of the total global land area (Richards, 1995). Increased salinization of arable lands is expected to have devastating global effects, resulting in 30% land losses within the next 25 years and up to 50% by the year 2050 (Wang et al., 2003). Soluble salts can cause harm to plant, if they are in high concentration in water or soils and it limit crop cultivation world wide. Generally an array of stresses interplay in saline soils and reduces productivity of salt sensitive crops. In India, about 12 mha of land has been affected with salinity and alkalinity (Yadav and Gupta, 1984); an area of nearly 4 mha of land suitable for rice affected with salinity (Paul and Ghosh, 1986). The optimum salt concentration for the growth of halophytes is found to be about 0.5 M NaCl (Flower and Yeo, 1981). Most of the crop plants are salt sensitive glycophytes.

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3 Waterlogging Tolerance

3.1. INTRODUCTION  Transitory waterlogging occurs extensively in both irrigated and dry land agriculture on clay flats and duplex soils. Most of the humid tropical lowlands, with adequate, rain-fed but poor drainage, have the problems of waterlogging, which is further intensified by low water table and poor root aeration. In submerged condition, only root is exposed to excess water and the injury to the shoot is not a primary effect. The term ‘waterlogging’ is defined as a condition of the soil where excess water inhibits gas exchange of roots with the atmosphere. Waterlogging is different from ‘flooding’ because the latter results in addition factors of partial or complete submergence of the shoot. The waterlogging replaces a gaseous air by liquid water, leading to the gas stresses. Schematic representation of adverse effects of waterlogging on plant growth and survival has been given in Fig. 3.1.

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4 Drought Tolerance

4.1. INTRODUCTION Water stress is the single most severe limitation to the productivity of rice in the rainfed ecosystem (Widawsky and O’Toole, 1990). Drought has been defined as the inadequacy of water availability, including precipitation and soil moisture storage capacity, in quantity and distribution during the life cycle of the crop to restrict expression of its full genetic yield potential. Drought is actually a meteorological event which implies the absence of rainfall for a period of time, long enough to cause moisture-depletion in soil and water deficit with a decrease of water potential in plant tissues. Under drought conditions, water stress develops in the plants as the demand exceeds supply of water; this may occur either/or both due to atmospheric or soil conditions, and is reflected in a gradient of water potentials developed between the soil or soil-root interface and leaf, the transpiring organ. Moisture stress is likely to develop to a different rate in different plant organs along with the gradient. Drought like many other environmental stresses has adverse effects on plant growth and yield.

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5 Heat Tolerance

5.1. INTRODUCTION Temperature is the one of the most important environmental element influencing the plant growth and development limiting the productivity and adaptation of crops, especially when it coincides with critical ranges (Chen et al., 1982; Paulsen, 1994). Nearly all commercial crops in the arid and semi-arid tropics often suffer from heat stress. Every plant has an optimal temperature for its normal growth, deviation from this may cause stress to plants. The adverse effects on plant of temperatures higher than the optimal considered as heat stress. Crops are exposed to periods of heat stress during their life-cycle. The optimum temperature for the most species ranges from 25 to 35 0C. Above this value, a decline in the photosynthesis rate is observed (Berry and Bjorkman, 1980; Pimentel, 1998). Even brief periods of heat-shock between temperature ranges of 45-50 0C induce marked change in plant growth processes.

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6 Cold Tolerance

6.1. INTRODUCTION Low temperature is one of the major environmental factors that limit the plant growth. Many plants of tropical origin suffer cold damage when exposed to temperature below 20ºC (Graham and Patterson, 1982, Andrews, 1987). Cold temperature in crop plants are compounded by cold snap– a lower than usual drop in temperature that causes the crop to fail. Low temperature in growing season may reduce germination, retard vegetative growth by inducing metabolic imbalances and can delay or prevent productive development. Each plant species has an optimum range of temperature for its normal growth and development. It varies among the genotypes within a species, the specific temperature also depends on the growth stage and development of the particular genotype.

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7 Oxidative Stress Tolerance

7.1. INTRODUCTION Abiotic stress is a major limiting factor in crop productivity. Several stresses, such as high temperature, high light intensity, osmotic stress, heavy metals, and several herbicides and toxin lead to over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing extensive cellular damage and inhibition of photosynthesis (Allen, 1997). ROS is produced in both unstressed and stressed cells. Plants have well developed mechanisms against ROS, involving both limiting the formation of ROS as well as instituting its removal. Under unstressed conditions, the formation and removal of O2 are balance. Introduction of molecular oxygen (O2) into atmosphere by O2- evolving photosynthetic organisms, ROS has been the unwelcome companion of anaerobic metabolism. In contrast to O2, these partially reduced or activated derivatives of oxygen (O21, O2-, H2O2, and HO) are highly reactive and toxic and can lead to the oxidative destruction in tissues during stress.

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8 Aluminium Toxicity Tolerance

8.1. INTRODUCTION Aluminium (Al) is not considered as essential nutrient, but at low concentrations it may increase plant growth or induce other desirable effects (Bollard and Butler, 1966; Foy, 1988; Huang et al., 1992a, b; Roy and Mandal, 2005). Al affects about 40-70% of the world arable land, which has the potential for food crops biomass production (Haug and Caldwell, 1985). Acid soils constitute about 3.95 billion hectares globally. About 38% of those are present in Tropical Asia (Datta, 2002). It is believed to cover more than 800 million hectares of forest and tropical Savana ecosystems of tropical America (Jaffe and Rojar, 1994; Prakash 2000). Nearly 75% of Amazon Basin contains acid and infertile soil classified as oxisols and utisols. About 383 million hectares (79%) of the Amazon area, suffers from Al toxicity. Acid soil occurs extensively in the some of the Mediterranean countries and Southern Australia. Low laying acid sulfate of Bay Islands in India chronically suffer from Al-toxicity (Chowdhury et al., 2001).

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9 Iron Toxicity Tolerance

9.1. INTRODUCTION Iron (Fe) is important component of a plant’s energy-power house chlorophyll. It also interacts with all the major enzymes and proteins at higher concentration in the soil, and it is toxic to plants. Fe-toxicity creates a range of nutrient disorders and deficiencies of P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn and Zn in plants. These elements were reported to play decisive roles in manifesting toxicity symptoms in rice (Sahu, 1968; Ottow et al., 1983; Yamauchi, 1989; Sahrawat et al., 1996). Excess absorption and translocation of Fe in the rice plants led to toxicity, which has been a major limiting factor in wetland rice. Average yield loss due to Fe-toxicity accounts to 50% and in fact ranges from 10-100% (Brigit et al., 1993).

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10 Other Metal Toxicity Tolerance

10.1. CADMIUM 10.1.1. Introduction Cadmium (Cd) is a strongly phytotoxic heavy metal in an increasing environmental problem worldwide. It is one of the most dangerous metal due to its high mobility and the small concentration at which its effects on the plants being to appear. It is released into the environment by the power stations, heating systems, metal-working industries or urban traffic. It is recognized as an extremely significant pollutant due to its high toxicity and large solubility in water (Pinto et al., 2004). Soil solutions which have a Cd concentration ranging from 0.32 to 1.00 mM can be regarded as polluted to a moderate level (Sanita di Toppi and Garbrielli, 1999).

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11 Non Metal Toxicity Tolerance

11.1. BORON TOXICITY 11.1.1. Introduction Boron (B) is essential micro-nutrient. It is necessary for cell wall formation, membrane integrity, calcium uptake and carbohydrate synthesis and transportation. B affects many functions in plants, which includes flowering, pollen germination, fruiting, cellular activities (division, differentiation, maturation, respiration etc.), water relationships and the movement of hormones. It is not translocated and leached easily from soils.

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12 Air Pollution

12.1. INTRODUCTION Air is polluted when it contains enough unhealthy particles and gases to harm human beings, animals, plants and even objects such as building and statues. Air pollutant may present as solid, liquid or gas form. Industrial revaluation in the 19th and 20th centuries leads faster increase in concentration of air pollutants in the atmosphere. The most important air pollutants that damage the plants’ growth and development, subsequently the economic yields of crop plants are ozone (O3), nitrous oxides (NO2 and NO), carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH4), peroxiacetyl nitrate (PAN), sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen fluorides (HF), particulate matters (cement dust, magnesium-lime dust, carbon shoot etc.), smoke etc. Burning of hydrocarbons in motor vehicle engines gives rise to CO2, CO, SO2, and NO in varying proportions and ethylene (C2H4) as well as other hydrocarbons. Industrial plants release SO2, H2S, NO2 and HF into atmosphere. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is another potentially injurious molecule, can form by the reaction between O3 and naturally release volatiles (terpenes) from forest trees.

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13 Radiation Stress Tolerance

13.1. INTRODUCTION Photosynthetically active radiation is a primary energy resource for terrestrial plants, necessary for the plant growth. Plants receives this photosynthetically active radiation from sunlight as a consequence, plants are also exposed to the ultraviolet (UV)-radiation. Seven percent of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun is the UV range (200-400 nm). Though representing only a small portion of the total solar electromagnetic spectrum, UV-B has a disproportionately large photobiological effect. As it passes through the atmosphere, the flux transmitted is greatly reduced, and the composition of the UV-radiation is modified. This UV-radiation is mainly divided into three classes, namely UV-A, UV-B and UV-C. The UV-A region of the spectrum (wavelengths from 320 to 400 nm) are not attenuated by ozone, so their influence will be unaffected by ozone layer reduction. This portion of the UV radiation is less damaging and important for photomorphogenic signal in plant development (Bjorn, 1994). The wavelength of UV-B portion ranges from 280 to 320 nm. This region of UV is very energetic and effectively absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere. Thus, only a very small portion, approximately 4% is transmitted to the earths. Shortwave UV-C radiation (200-280 nm) is highly energetic and strongly absorbed by atmospheric oxygen and ozone. Thus, none of this sterilizing radiation is present in terrestrial sunlight.

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14 Climate Change

14.1. INTRODUCTION The climate of a place is the average weather that is experiences over a period of time. It is the natural phenomenon that has occurred throughout the history of the earth. Climate change is strongly associated with higher temperature, altered precipitation, and higher levels of atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gases. It is a very slow process; it takes a long time to settle in. Climate change in IPCC (2007) usage refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activities. Over the last 150-200 years the changes to our climate are happening more quickly now than they have ever done before in the geological past. Human activities have altered natural climatic processes at a geographically rapid pace by booting atmospheric concentrations of several greenhouse gasses. Following are the changes taken place over years of industrial age (IPCC, 2007):

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15 End Pages

Index A Aba  14, 15, 53, 74, 95, 101, 133, 145, 147, 148, 150, 167, 175, 181, 191, 207, 240, 246, 252, 253, 254, 257, 266, 271, 279, 289, 292, 411, 421 Abscisic acid  147, 207, 253 Aerenchyma  94, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 113, 116, 121, 123, 125, 126, 131 Agrobacterium  59, 63, 172, 310, 311, 312, 318, 321 Agropyron cristatum  32 Alfalfa  33, 37, 42, 44, 50, 59, 69, 70, 75, 83, 85, 177, 187, 196, 284, 285, 307, 308, 315, 321, 322, 323, 345, 366, 369, 376, 468, 492, 493, 504, 507 Amine oxidase  295 Ammonia  465 Amylase  53, 271 Anaerobic polypeptides  104 Anoxic  92 Anther culture  268

 
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