Preface Since last four decades, after the discovery of first phytonematode from India, a continuous survey and surveillance processes remained continue, because of causing immense crop losses to various agricultural/horticultural/plantation crops. Based on FAO data (1984) the crop losses caused by these on world wide scale seems to about 12.3%. In many crops , where either monocropping remained continue by the cultivators or the prevailing ecosystem suited to the phytonematodes, then the range of crop losses may even exceeds more than 60-70 % and which some times causes menace condition during crop cultivation. After having such data, various phytonematode management strategies; viz. cultural, chemical, biotic, breeding for disease resistance and Integrated Nematode Management were initiated, a lot of compilation of such work has been done and various packages of practices have been developed by the nematologists for economic management of phytonematodes  for the use of cultivators.  This book deals with total 11 chapters. Of which, some are related to the thrusts caused by the phytonematodes and their managements in cereals, forage, pulses, seed spices, horticultural and plantation crops. In some of these, the protective cultivation and interaction between nematode and phytopathogens have also been dealt. Coverage of this book is with recent literature pertinent to the related topics and their compilation also made by subject learned scientist. It is to hope that this book will be serving as a good reference book to the subject related researchers and scientists.

Introduction The cereal cyst nematode, (Heterodera avenae Woll.) a causal organism of ‘molya’ disease in wheat and barley, since after its first report (by Wollenweber, 1924, Vasudeva, 1958 and Prasad et al., 1959), it has been timely reviewed about its spread and losses caused in the various parts of wheat and barley growing areas of the world. It has been reported to occur in Australia, Canada, Israel, South Africa, Japan, in most of the European countries, North America, India, Morocco, Tunisia, Pakistan, Libya, Turkey and Australia (Prasad et al., 1959, Smiley et al., 1994, Rumpen horst et al.,1996, Krall et al., 1999, Nicol, 2002 and Rao et al., 2002). Its economic importance has been assessed by mapping the yield losses caused in cereals i.e. ranged from 15-20% in Pakistan, 40-92% in Sauthi Arabia, 23-50% in Australia (Nicol, 2002) and 40-50% in India (Mathur 1969, Mathur et al., 1980, Handa et al., 1985, Mathur, et al., 1987).

Preamble In India, agriculture plays an important role as it accounts for about 18% of the GDP and supports nearly 58% of the total working population for employment. Food grain production increased significantly from a low level of 50 million Tons during 1950-51 to a record of 230.7 million Tons in 2007-08. The demand for food is growing rapidly due to increasing population and rising income levels, hence we need to produce about 320 million Tons of foodgrains by the year 2025. It implies more pressure on our exhisting land, soil and water resources which are already in short supply, degraded, fragile and this similar situation is being faced by mainly developing countries today. Plant parasitic nematodes are of great economic significance. Since most of them live in the soil hence represent one of the most difficult pest problems in terms of identification, demonstration and management.

Introduction India has the distinction of being the largest producer of pulses in the world. Among the important pulse crops cultivated in the country are: chickpea, pigeonpea, lentil, mungbean, urdbean, fieldpea, rajmash and lathyrus. The pulse crops occupied an area of 22.85 million ha with a total production of 13.07 million tones and average productivity of 572 kg/ha. Being a high protein grain, pulses have special status in the diet, particularly for vegetarian population. Apart from being a good source of protein, they are also good source of energy, essential amino acids and vitamins in the daily diets of the people, especially of low-income group. Pulses have importance in sustainable agriculture by way of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.But with intensification of agriculture and introduction of irrigation and other facilities the area and production under pulses is declining so much so that per caput availability of pulses has declined from 69 g day-1 to about  36 g day-1.

Introduction Plant paprasitic nematodes are one of the limiting factors in the production of horticultural crops in the country. The visible symptoms of nematode attack are: Reduced individual plant growth, varying degrees of chlorosis, wilting of the foliage and sometimes death of the plants. The roots, damaged by nematodes are not efficient in the utilization of available moisture and nutrients in soil resulting in reduced functional metabolism. Nematode infested roots are easily infected by various pathogenic fungi and bacteria and aggrevate root damage. These deleterious effects on plant growth result in reduced yield and poor quality of crops as in citrus, banana, grapevine, pineapple, papaya and vegetable crops. Decline or death of highly prised ornamentals and turf is often the result of nematode infestation.

Introduction Maize (Zea mays Linn) is the most widely distributed crop of the world. It adapts easily to a wide range of production environments and is grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world. It holds a unique position in world agriculture ranking third after rice and wheat in terms of area as well as production. In India too, it is the third most important cereal crop and is cultivated in 8. 17 m ha (2007-08) area. It contributes nearly 8% to the national food basket and more than Rs 100 billion to agricultural gross domestic products with an annual production of 19. 73 million tons. It is used as a source of human food (24%) animal feed (11%), poultry feed (52%), starch (11%), brewery and seed (1% each). In India it is largely grown in Northern states where it serves as an important staple food for an economically vulnerable population of submountainarean and hilly regions.

Introduction Rice (Oryza sativa L.), one of the most important cereal crops of India, occupies 23.3 per cent of total cropped area of the country. Rice contributes 43 per cent of total food grain production and 46 per cent of total cereal production. It continues to play a vital role in the nation’s food grain supply. It is also a staple food of nearly half of the world population. Rice is primarily a high caloric food having protein content (6-17%) with high biological value and a low amount of fat (2-2.5%). B-group vitamins content in rice grains are at par with wheat, however, calcium content in rice is generally low. It ranks third after wheat and maize in terms of worldwide production. Asia accounts for 90 and 92% of the world’s rice area and production, respectively. Thus, rice production, consumption and trade are concentrated in Asia. Among the rice growing countries in the world, India has the largest areas under rice crop and ranks second in production next to China.

Introduction Seed spices have prominent place in India’s national economy because of their very high domestic consumption and growing demand for export. This group of spices, being consisting of mostly annual crops, is grown extensively in rotation with food and cash crops and also as inter crops under rain fed as well as irrigated conditions. There are about 20 seed spice crops grown in India. Out of which nine are important in terms of production and export. The most important ones are coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek (major seed spices) and ajowain, aniseed, black cumin, celery and dill (minor seed spice crops). Although these crops are grown all over India but Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are the main seed spice growing states.

Introduction Banana is the forth ranked agricultural crop in the world and first among fruits. A large number of pests and diseases threaten banana production. The major constraints in production are diseases and pests transmitted through the conventional planting materials. Although the average yield for bananas worldwide is over 40 t per hectare, production in India averages only 20 t per hectare. The nematode parasites are among the most important pests on commercial and subsistence banana production and their control remains difficult, as the nematodes are involved in the destruction of primary roots that disrupt the anchorage system resulting in toppling or uprooting of plants. The most widespread and important are burrowing nematode, Radopholus similes, some species of root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae and P. goodeyi, species of root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica; the spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus multicinctus, H. mucronatus and semi endo-parasitic nematode Rotytlenchus reniformis.

Introduction Nematodes are cosmopolitan and ubiquitous in occurrence. These have been reported in all kinds of ecological niche. Accordingly, different kinds of nematode fauna had evolved with distinct morphological features and physiological variability. However, development and perception keep changing with the ambient environment. Agriculture has progressed with leap and bounce as human being has managed this to its maximum utility. The fast changes in agriculture definitely influenced the ecological niche and affected the flora and fauna. Consequently, specific and unspecific kind of relation evolved between host and parasite. With the thumb rule of ecological balance or homeostasis. In the dynamic Mother Nature, multispecies heterogeneous complex is sustained and nature do not perpetuate homogeneity.

Protected Cultivation Protected cultivation (PC) may be defined as the “modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum plant growth” (Singh, 2005). Modifications can be made to both the aerial and root environments to increase crop yields, extend the growing season and permit plant growth during periods of the year not commonly used to grow open field crops. PC may also indicate comprehensive systems of ‘Controlled Environmental Agriculture’ in which all the aspects of natural environment are modified for maximum plant growth and economic return.

Introduction Biological control of plant pathogens is currently accepted as a key practice in sustainable agriculture. Plant parasitic nematodes and mycorrhizal fungi are commonly found inhabiting the same soil and colonizing roots of their host plants. These two groups of microorganisms exert a characteristics, but opposite effect on plant health. The potential role of mycorrhizal fungi as biocontrol agent for the control of nematode plant diseases has recently received considerable attention. The literature on the various aspects of VAM research such as interaction of VAM- mycorrhizal fungi with nematode pathogens (Sikora, 1995, Pinochet et al. 1996), biotechnology and future of VAM commercialization (Wood and Cumming, 1992) and trends in mycorrhizal research (Sahay et al. 1998) has been reviewed. The damage due to nematodes diseases is generally decreased in mycorrhizal fungi has shown an antagonistic influence on the population of plant parasitic nematodes (Nagesh et al. 1999, Kantharaju et al.

Introduction Plantation crops are high value commercial crops which are broadly classified as estate crops consisting of crops like tea, coffee and rubber and small holders plantation crops like coconut, cashew, arecanut, cocoa etc. Spices especially black pepper, cardamom, vanilla, tree spices like clove, nutmeg, cinnamon and allspice are generally grown as mixed crops in perennial cropping systems. In India, plantation crops including spices are grown in an area of three million hectares and generate an annual income of more than Rs, 5,53,630 million. They are valued for multifarious uses to meet the human needs such as food, oil, industrial raw materials, beverages and confectionary items. Pests and diseases are the major limiting factors in increasing the productivity of these crops. Among the pests, nematodes have got a major role in devastating the pepper plantations by the involvement in slow wilt disease, nematode diseases of cardamom nurseries, root-knot nematode infestation in ginger, turmeric, clove, nutmeg, allspice, lesion nematode infestation in tea, coffee, etc.