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CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

P. Suresh Kumar, Manish Kanwat, P.D. Meena, Vinod Kumar, Rajesh A. Alone, Rajesh A.
  • Country of Origin:

  • Imprint:

    NIPA

  • eISBN:

    9789389907759

  • Binding:

    EBook

  • Number Of Pages:

    388

  • Language:

    English

Individual Price: 3,600.00 INR 3,240.00 INR + Tax

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This book to comprehensively present the standard methodologies for studying the impacts of climate change on agriculture, measuring and developing inventories of greenhouse gas emission, and analyzing the vulnerabilities and mitigation options. The book describes the methodology in a simple and lucid way so that a researcher can adopt it in field studies. Individual chapters are dedicated to subjects such as quantification of climate change impacts on crops in controlled and field conditions, impacts of climate change on water resources, soil fertility, erosion and carbon sequestration, insects, pests, weeds, microbes and diseases; greenhouse gas emission assessment, assessment of regional vulnerability to climate change, selection of crop. The book converted its 23 chapters into four sections. The 1st section deals with recent mitigation strategies developed by the scientists to reduce the effect of climate changes and promote the Sustainable Agriculture by different ways viz., Role of Marker in Development of Climate Resilient Varieties. Section 2 deals with the conservation agriculture and mitigation strategies, Biofertilizers helps in development of sustainable agricultural practices. Section 3 deals with impact of climate change on pest scenario across the crops and has given insight on possible avoidance of pests. Final sections deals with the agroforestry and how they can minimise their affect of climate change. Finally section 4th deals with Impact of climate change crop and livestock sectors and strategies for mitigation and adaptation. Role of ICT and extension agencies on framing policies and effective dissemination of technologies were discussed.

0 Start Pages

Preface Climate change is perhaps the biggest challenge facing the world today, and the very existence of man depends on how effectively this challenge is tackled. All governments have come together on a common forum to devise means to cope with this phenomenon, which threatens to play havoc with the lives of people across the globe. Our health, agriculture, habitation, everything depends on how effectively we are able to tackle this problem. Climate change is one of the most complex challenges that humankind has to face in the next decades. As the change process seems to be irreversible, it became urgent to develop sound adaptation processes to the current and future shifts in the climate system. In particular, it is likely that the biggest impacts of changes will be on agricultural and food systems over the next few decades. There is significant concern about the impacts of climate change and its variability on agricultural production worldwide. Climatic changes and increasing climatic variability are likely to aggravate the problem of future food security by exerting pressure on agriculture. However, there are lot of uncertainties about the assessment of impact, adaptation and mitigation of climate change in agriculture. It is largely because the methodology followed for such assessments is not standardized and sometimes it is inaccurate and imprecise.   Within this framework, it is crucial to identify information and communication systems that the farmers need in order to cope with the new conditions. This is particularly true for poor smallholder farmers, as in India where the majority of small and marginal farmers do not have access to the scientific and technological advances that support agricultural decision-making because of the lack of reliable communication networks. With regard to agronomic research, one of the major challenges will be to study how to fill the information needs of policy makers, and how to report and communicate research results in an effective way for supporting the adaptation of food systems to climate change. 

 
1 Abiotic Stresses Forced Challenges in Agriculture Under Future Climate
P. Suresh Kumar, S.K. Bal, Yogeshwar Singh, V.K. Choudhary, A. Sangeetha and M. Kanwat

Introduction Much of the world’s agricultural biodiversity is found in environments marginal for agricultural production. It is in such environments where management of high levels of diversity can become a central part of the livelihood management strategies of farmers and the survival of their communities. Abiotic stress can be termed as the negative impact of environmental factors on the organisms in a specific situation. It is a natural phenomenon that occurs in multiples and interdependent, and its impact varies across the sectors of agriculture. Abiotic stress is the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crop plants by more than 50%. Drought and salinity are becoming particularly widespread in many regions, and may cause serious salinization of more than 50% of all arable lands by the year 2050 (Wang  2003). Environmental stresses such as erratic and insufficient rainfall, extreme temperatures, salinity, alkalinity, aluminium toxicity, acidity, stoniness and others limit yield and productivity of many cultivated crop plants. Not only are such problems serious today, it seems they are inevitably worsening.

1 - 26 (26 Pages)
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2 Climate Change Impact on Agriculture Adaptation Strategies
M.L. Dotaniya, V.D. Meena, Manju Lata and B.L. Meena

Introduction Climate change is a big phenomena, it is having a huge impact on agriculture from ancient to present time. It has received wide attention and debate as the public concern has increased about unforeseen change in climate. The impact of climate change on Indian agriculture will be significant since more than 60% of Indian population depends on agriculture for their livelihood with the contribution of agriculture to GDP is approximately 20 percent. In recent decades, human induced changes in climate has the focus of scientific and social attention.

27 - 38 (12 Pages)
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3 Hailstorm Occurrence and Its Management Strategies with the Changing Climate
S.K. Bal, P. Suresh Kumar, Yogeshwar Singh, D.D. Nangare, B.P. Fand, Sunayan Saha and P.S. Minhas

Introduction   Food production systems in India are becoming increasingly vulner-able to climate variability and change which are largely characterized by altered frequency timing and magnitude of precipitation and temperature that trigger a series of other devastating events. High rates of snow and glacial melting, frequent floods and droughts, heat waves, hail and increased incidence of pests and diseases are already causing widespread damage and losses to agricultural sector in tropical and sub-tropical countries including India. Overwhelming direct damage to crops and livestock within few minutes can be caused by extreme weather events such as hail, wind­storm, or heavy frost. While occurrence, losses and post disaster management have been discussed extensively for natural calamities such as excess rainfall, drought and flood, little attention has been given to hail storm.

39 - 54 (16 Pages)
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4 Impact of Climate Change under Coastal Ecosystem and Adaptation Strategies
B.L. Meena, R.L. Meena, Manish Kanwat, A. Kumar and M.L. Dotaniya

Introduction Increasing evidence over the past few decades indicate that significant changes in climate are taking place worldwide and its effects are surreal. Major cause to climate change has been ascribed to the increased levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxides (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) beyond their natural levels due to the uncontrolled human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, increased use of refrigerants, and enhanced agricultural activities. Global average sea level has risen since 1961 at an average rate of 1.8 (1.3 to 2.3) mm/yr and since 1993 at 3.1 (2.4 to 3.8) mm/yr, with contributions from thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and polar ice sheets. The climatic changes are resulting in erratic weather patterns and the impacts are already being manifested in many parts of the world and coastal agricultural systems are nearing crisis point. The IPCC has projected that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further by 1.1 to 2.9 °C as per their lowest estimation model and by 2.4 to 6.4 °C as per their higher estimation model.

55 - 66 (12 Pages)
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5 Advances of Biotechnology for Climate Resilient Agriculture
Amit Sen, Kshitiz Kumar Shukla, Sanjay Singh, G. Tejovathi and Arifa Khatoon

Introduction Agriculture plays a crucial role in ensuring food security, accounting for a significant share of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture is not just about food production alone, since it is a complex multi-dimensional and multi-faceted sector which concerns the efficient use of the natural resources, productivity enhancement, and preservation of the ecosystems in a manner that can sustain the needs and improvements of human livelihoods (Devendra, 2012). It is also a most vulnerable sector to climate change which has been recognized as one of the most serious challenge for the world- its people, the environment and its economies. Increased incidence of abiotic stresses (drought, high & low temperature, salinity, submergence and oxidative stress) and biotic stresses (pest and diseases) have became major cause for stagnation of productivity in major crops (Grover et al., 2011). Abiotic stresses are directly correlated with the change in climate while biotic stresses are indirectly correlated as the pattern and incidence of disease varies with the variation in climatic condition. Also, crop productivity rely on extent and type of stress in the particular area.

67 - 74 (8 Pages)
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6 Role of Marker Assisted Selection in Development of Climate Resilient Rice Varieties
M. Girijarani and P.V. Satyanarayana

Introduction Climate change has become an issue of global concern and has a direct large scale impact on land and marine biosphere. The expected and unlikely events like increase in temperature, melting of glaciers and rising of sea level, increase in magnitude  and frequency of drought and floods, cyclones/tsunamis, desertification, heat and cold waves, snow fall are most threatening challenges that are being witnesses in the present era. Rain fall is likely to decline by 5-10 % over southern parts of India where as 10-20% increase likely over the other regions. There is probable decrease in number of rainy days over major parts of the country pointing at likely increase of extreme events of floods or drought. In India, salt affected soils currently estimated to be 6.73 M ha in different agroecological regions and  the area is likely to be almost turn to 20Mha by 2050. Framing breeding strategies to develop climate resilient varieties is necessary to mitigate adverse effects of climate change.

75 - 84 (10 Pages)
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7 Climate Change and its Effect on Water Availability and Mitigation Strategies
V.K. Choudhary, Manish Kanwat, P. Suresh Kumar and R. Bhagawati

Introduction “Food insecurity is an enormous challenge at a global scale, with strong implications both for environmental management and for socio-economic development” (Rockstrom, 2003). This is exaggerated by persistent drought and uneven distribution of rainfall resulting in low crop yield. As the results, millions of lives are threatened with starvation caused by food shortages particularly in the arid and semi arid regions where majority of population still rely on rain-fed agriculture to secure food security (Ntsheme, 2005). The majority of the affected population threatened with starvation resides in the rural areas with little or no income at all. It is projected that large number of population will be without food in coming years. This is exacerbated by slow economic growth and poor performance in the agricultural sector. It is likely that the increment of the food gap will occur in the near future intensifying the shortage of food in the region (Kundlande et al, 2004).

85 - 102 (18 Pages)
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8 Potential of Conservation Agriculture in Drought Stress Management in Crop Plants
R.L. Choudhary, Mahesh Kumar, Satish Kumar, Hardev Ram and Aradhana Kumari

Introduction Global food production, already under the credit crunch, must double by 2050 to level off hunger. According to the UN World Food Programme (WFP), this will be possible only if food security is given top priority. The food security has become a complex issue influenced by climate and non-climate induced stressors which operate independently or in combinations are tackled appropriately. This climate induced stress is further augmented by climate change which affects agriculture and food production in complex ways. It affects food production directly through changes in agro-ecological conditions and indirectly by affecting growth and distribution of incomes, and thus demand for agricultural produce. Climate change has emerged as a major challenge in achieving goals of sustainable agriculture. Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or/and as a result of human activity (IPCC, 2007). Agriculture impacts climate change with greenhouse gas emissions, and is at the same time impacted by effects of climate change as well. Amongst elements of climate change, the most important relate to increasing uncertainty in availability of water due to increasing frequency of drought and/or excess water events resulting in uneven water availability over time and space. Drought is a normal, recurring feature of the climate in most parts of the world. Drought is defined as the absence of rainfall or supplemental irrigation for a period of time sufficient to deplete soil moisture and injure plants. According to USDA drought occurs when annual precipitation is 75 percent of normal, or monthly precipitation is 60 per cent of normal. Drought stress results when water loss from the plant exceeds the ability of roots to absorb water and when the plant’s water content is reduced enough to interfere with normal plant processes.

103 - 122 (20 Pages)
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9 Climate Change, Water Scarcity and Use of Waste Water for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security
V.D. Meena and M.L. Dotaniya

Introduction Ground water (GW) resources in most areas of world are shrinking at an alarming rate and may not meet the ever increasing demands from agriculture and industry in future. Large decreases in GW levels (up to 200 m in some places) have been observed due to over exploitation (Toze, 2006). It accounts for more than 65% irrigation water and 85% of drinking water supplies lies in a critical state. Many areas of the world, already experiencing stress on water availability, which placed severe strains on existing resources with resulting environmental impacts. Half of the population of the developing world suffers from at least one disease caused by insufficient water supply and sanitation.

123 - 142 (20 Pages)
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10 Impact of Climate Change on Crop and Livestock Sectors and Strategies for Mitigation and Adaptation
H.M. Meena, R.K. Singh, Dipak Kumar Gupta and A.K. Mishra

Introduction Climate change and climate variability have become a reality. Recent climate changes have widespread impacts on human and natural systems including agriculture. According to Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). For example, it could show up as a change in climate normal (expected average values for temperature and precipitation) for a given place and time of year, from one decade to the next. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. In last 130 years (1880-2012), the global averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature has increased by 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C (IPCC, 2014). This increase in temperature is disturbing global climate system as a result we are observing climate change on entire continent. IPCC has projected the temperature increase between 1.1 °C and 6.4 °C by the end of the 21st Century (IPCC, 2007).

143 - 160 (18 Pages)
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11 System of Rice Intensification (SRI) - A Climate Smart Agriculture Approach
Arnab Banerjee and Manoj Kumar Jhariya

Introduction The vast majority of climate change impacts and the overall impact of climate change on rice production are likely to be negative. Overwhelming scientific research and evidence have shown that the climate is ongoing. According to the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) report Climate Change: Impact on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation forecasts there will be an increase in the net price of rice between 32 and 37% as a result of climate change by 2050. They also show that yield losses in rice could be between 10 and 15%. While there is still ongoing scientific exploration into climate change, IRRI recognizes two universal trends predicted by all climate change models viz., temperatures will increase, resulting in more heat stress and rising sea levels and there will be more frequent and severe climate extremes.

161 - 174 (14 Pages)
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12 Biofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture Benefits, Types and Application
Krishna Kumar Patel, Priyata Chaudhary and Upendra Singh

Introduction The current population of our country is about 1.27 billion and the world population is predicted to grow from 6.9 billion in 2010 to 8.3 billion in 2030 and to 9.1 billion in 2050. By 2030, food demand is predicted to increase by 50% (70% by 2050). The main challenge facing the agricultural sector is not so much growing 70% more food in 40 years, but making 70% more food available on the plate (UNDESA, 2014). This rising food demand automatically put burden on the shoulder of formers especially for ASEAN countries such as India where population growth rate is high while resources are limited. India has about 141 million hectares area under cultivation out of its geographical area which 329 million hectares (Raghuwanshi, 2012; Parikh and James, 2012). Consequently, agriculture is, thus, one of the most important factors contributing to the economic growth of India (Kniivila, 2007). The production of the agricultural produce should be up to the mark to maintain this contribution. In order to enhance the crop production, fertilizers are needed because they supply the nutrients to the soil. By adding fertilizers, crop yields can often be doubled or even tripled.

175 - 190 (16 Pages)
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13 Role of Climate Change Under Rainfed Farming in Western Rajasthan, India
M.L. Meena and Dheeraj Singh

Introduction Climate is one of the main determinants of agricultural production. Throughout the world there is significant concern about the effects of climate change and its variability on agricultural production. Researchers and administrators are concerned with the potential damages and benefits that may arise in future from climate change impacts on agriculture, since these will affect domestic and international policies, trading pattern, resource use and food security. The climate change is any change in climate over time that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (IPCC, 2007).

191 - 200 (10 Pages)
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14 Climate Change Scenario of Arunachal Pradesh and Role of Agro-met Advisory Services for Crop and Resource Planning
K. Bhagawati and R. Bhagawati

Introduction Arunachal Pradesh is the largest hill state of North Eastern Himalayan Region having the total geographical area of 83,743 Sq Km, stretching between 26o28’ to 29o28’ N latitude and 91º35’ to 97º27’ E longitude and is endowed with a unique geo-physiography. Topographically, Arunachal Pradesh is generally a hilly region, with entire state lies on the mighty Himalayan and Patkoi ranges. The elevation of the hills ranges from 60 meters to over 7000 meters. Mt. Kangto (7090 m), Mt. Nyegi Kangsang (7050 m) and Mt. Gorichen (6488 m) are three highest peaks of Arunachal Pradesh. The Himalayan mountain system divides the state mainly into five river valleys: the Kameng, the Subansiri, the Siang, the Lohit and the Tirap. These rivers, along with innumerable rivulets traversing through innumerable hill systems treading through the rugged terrains, steep hills, valleys and ultimately drain down to from two major river systems and valleys of the region__ the Brahmaputra and the Barak. The state has rich biological as well as cultural diversity.

201 - 214 (14 Pages)
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15 Encountering Climate Change in Agricultural Crops: Are we Ready with Tools for Pest Management?
S. Bhagat, Amrender Kumar, B.K. Bhattacharya, A. Birah, P.D. Meena, V. Kumar and C. Chattopadhyay

Introduction Climate change is of great concern to India in view of food and nutritional security of its ever growing population. The impacts of climate change are global, but Indian subcontinent is more vulnerable due to dependence of its large population on agriculture. It can cause millions of deaths a year worldwide and costing more than a trillion of US dollar. Climate change has direct effect on agriculture due to 0.74°C average global increase in temperature in the last 100 years and atmospheric CO2 concentration having increased from 280 ppm (1750) to 400 ppm (2013). These changes have direct effect on growth and multiplication/fecundity, spread and severity/infestation of many plant pathogens/insect pests, which in turn are affecting the pattern of incidence of pests (including diseases). Changing pest scenario due to climate change has warranted the need for future studies on such models which can predict the severity of important pathogens of major crops in real-field conditions. Simultaneously, pest management strategies may be reoriented to cope up with changing scenario for sustainable food production.

215 - 238 (24 Pages)
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16 Climate Change and Changing Pest Scenario
C.P. Viji, K. Phanikumar and V. Sudhavani

Introduction Climate is a measure of the average pattern of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation and other meteorological variables in a given region over long period of time. Climatic change refers to the shifts in the mean states of the climate or in all its variability, persisting for an extended period (decade or longer). The expected climatic change includes an increase in average temperature, an increase in CO2 concentration and varied rainfall regimes due to increased ultra violet-B radiation. Fossil fuel burning and deforestation have emerged as principal anthropogenic sources of rising atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gases and consequent global warming and climatic change.

239 - 252 (14 Pages)
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17 Impact of Climate Change on Insect Pests and Their Management Strategies
Abhishek Pareek, B.M. Meena, Sitaram Sharma, M.L. Tetarwal R.K. Kalyan and B.L. Meena

Introduction Climate change is an important determinant of abundance and distribution of species. It is concerned with everyone since it posess potential threat to environment, and agricultural productivity and production throughout the world. It has implications for livelihood and survival of human beings. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001), it is defined as “Change in climate over time, either due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.” As described by IPCC, the most of global warming observed over last 50 years is attributed to the human activities.

253 - 286 (34 Pages)
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18 Sustainable Agriculture with Agroforestry Adoption to Climate Change
Abhishek Raj and M.K. Jhariya

Introduction Sustainable agriculture is the production of food, fiber, or other plant or animal products using farming techniques (including agroforestry) that protect the environment, public health, human communities, and animal welfare. This form of agriculture enables us to produce healthy food without compromising future generations ability to do the same. Sustainable agriculture describes farming systems that are capable of maintaining their productivity and usefulness to society indefinitely. Such systems must be resource-conserving, socially supportive, commercially competitive and environmentally sound. It is a system of agriculture that will maintain its productivity over the long run. Sustainable farming could be organic farming, biodynamic, perma-culture, agro-ecological systems and low input. The goal of sustainable agriculture is to minimize adverse impacts to the immediate and off-farm environments while providing a sustained level of production and profit. Sustainable agriculture is influenced by environmental climate, soil types and the various crops and types of farm practices employed (Olorunfemi, 2013).

287 - 294 (8 Pages)
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19 Agroforestry Interventions for Rehabilitation of Sustainability and Climate Change Mitigation in Degraded Jhum Lands of North Eastern Hill Region
Nirmal and R.A. Alone

Introduction North Eastern Himalaya region of India comprises of the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura (Kukreti, 2000) lies between 21.5° N to 29.5° N latitude and 85.5° E to 97.5° E longitude. The total area of the region is 1,83,753 km2 thousand hectares of which about 9,729 ha (52.95%) is estimated to be under various type of forest including fallow land under regeneration in shifting cultivation with 220 different ethnic groups (Moral, 1997) and a total population of 1,01,39,990 (Table 1.) Northeast India is mountainous and a unique ethnic region with typical land tenure system with climate ranging from tropical to alpine type and altitudinal variation from 15 m to 5000 m amsl. Sustainable realizations of equitable livelihood in the region call upon conservation of bio-resources, environmental externalities, management of fragility and social sensitivities. Traditionally several niche based agroforestry systems of harmonizing woody biomass growth, crop production, livestock rearing and micro-enterprising have been evolved and indigenous technical knowledge generated to enhance income, employment and subsistence.

295 - 314 (20 Pages)
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20 Non-conventional Feed Resources for Sustainable Livestock Farming in Changing Climate Scenario in Arunachal Pradesh
R.A. Alone, Doni Jini, Nirmal, M. Kanwat, Anup Chandra Jitendra Kumar, M.S. Baruah and R. Bhagawati

Introduction In livestock production system, it is traditional to feed cereals, cakes and meals in the ration. With increase in human population and urbanization the area under fodder or cereal production cannot be increased. There is a huge gap between demand and supply of all kinds of feeds and fodders. Also, rise in global temperature is threatening food and fodder security as a whole. Climate change affects natural resources (such as water sources, land and pastures), biodiversity and livestock health. This has a direct effect on livestock production and livestock systems and as such it is not desirable for the livelihood of the people especially those residing in hilly region. The situation is acute in developing countries where annual feed deficits and increasing animal populations are major problems.

315 - 330 (16 Pages)
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21 Role of Extension in Managing Climate Change
Dileep Kumar

Introduction Natural phenomena such as solar radiation, volcanic activity and ocean circulation influence climate and contribute to its variability. Evidence suggests that climate is now also changing as a result of human activities, such as the emission of greenhouse gases and changing land uses. The fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) concluded that the global average mean temperature and the frequency of hot extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation will very likely increase in response to increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Society will have to make decisions in the coming years about how to adapt to a changing climate. Climate variability and climate change create risks to all sectors of the economy. Climate is already a prime factor in 9 out of 10 disasters, many of which cost billions of dollars and thousands of lives. Effective preparation for the possible effects of climate change requires the engagement of resource managers, planners, public works officials, local managers, community development specialists, businesses, residents, and property owners. The challenge is to provide these diverse stakeholders with trusted, useful, science-based information so that they in turn can make informed decisions. 

331 - 342 (12 Pages)
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22 Role of Information and Communication Technologies on Climate Dependant Agriculture
K.K. Chaturvedi, Anil Rai, Mohd. Samir Farooqi, S.B. Lal, Vinod Kumar and U.B. Angadi

Introduction ICT is an acronym for Information and Communication Technology.  The information refers to accessibility of digital data in an easy way to retrieve relevant facts. The communication refers to the medium or the way to transmit the information from one place to another place or one media to another media. The advancement in these areas refers to technology. The collectively ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. For example, personal computers, digital television, email, robots. Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). The change lasts for an extended period of time i.e., decades to millions of years has also been considered as climate change. The causing factors of climate change are biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. The affecting factors seems to be irreversible, it has become the today’s necessity to develop improved next generation technologies which processes the current and future shifts in the climate system. In particular, the Agriculture will be most affected domain due to climate over the next few decades (Brown and Funk, 2008). The development of crop modeling tools pointed out that climate change is likely to decrease agricultural production.

343 - 356 (14 Pages)
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23 Role of Extension in Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
B.L. Dhaka

Introduction In order to define climate it is important to distinguish it from weather. The weather that we experience on a day-to-day basis is a momentary atmospheric state characterized by temperature, precipitation, wind, and so on, and seems to vary in an irregular way, not following any particular pattern. Climate is a very general term that has a variety of closely related meanings. Usually, climate refers to the average weather conditions observed over a long period of time for a given area. In contrast to the instantaneous conditions described by weather, the timescale upon which climate statistics are calculated is typically thirty years. There can be variations in climate from year to year, or one decade to another, one century to another, or any longer time scale. The climate of a region depends on many factors including the amount of sunlight it receives, its height above sea level, the shape of the land, distance from the equator and how close it is to oceans. Generally speaking, the climate remains stable over long periods of time if the various elements within the system remain stable. However, if one or more of the components of the system is altered, the stability of the whole system is compromised and can lead to uncharacteristic behaviour and give rise to weather, which is outside the usual range of expectations. This situation can be described as climate change.

357 - 364 (8 Pages)
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