Preface The Tsunami which has been an unknown terminology to the common man and least studied phenomenon by the scientists and technocrats of Indian ocean countries, has struck most of the coastal nations of the Indian Ocean on 26th December 2004. As this ferocious natural disaster swallowed over two lakhs people and shattered properties worth of several million rupees, the Government of India has taken up speedy measures to understand the phenomenon and to provide short term protective and long term preventive measures for tsunami. The Department of Science and Technology, through NRDMS Division, has envisioned an all India coordinated programme for assessing the tsunami damages in respect of natural, physical and human resources using Remote Sensing (Indian Remote sensing Satellite data of the Pre-Tsunami period and Digital Orthophoto and other satellite data of Post-Tsunami period) and to finally create GIS databases on the disasters, on 1:8,000 scale so as to provide baseline information for the planners and also to evolve possible futuristic strategies for tsunami mitigation from the zones and extent of damages. This study was executed through specialized centers in Remote Sensing, GIS and Geosciences in the country for the affected coastal areas of Andaman - Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Through these studies, GIS data bases were generated on the damages to natural resources (Coastal landforms, land use / land cover, soil in terms of salinity and alkalinity, modifications in aquifer etc.), damages to the buildings, communication and transportation, Agriculture, Irrigation, Human resources etc. In addition to the results of the above studies, few more scientific papers invited from eminent scholars of diverse disciplines constitute this most illuminated and illustrative volume on text book standards entitled “GEOMATICS IN TSUNAMI”. The scientific articles embedded in this book address all the major issues viz: historical perspective, wave propagation, geomatics based damage assessment-interface dynamics between the tidal waves and the coastal landforms-the mitigative strategies evolved therefrom, impacts on the ecosystem, tsunami triggered societal issues, citizen’s perspective, strategic roles played by Govt. and NGO’s during 2004 tsunami etc., in five well defined sections. The first two editors gratefully acknowledges Prof C. Thangamuthu, Vice- Chancellor, Bharathidasan University for his overwhelming support in undertaking this assignment. They also record their great appreciation to the research, technical and administrative team of them from Centre for Remote Sensing viz: Dr. K. Palanivel, Mr.N.Nagappan, Mr.J.Saravanavel, Mr.M.Muthukumar, Mr.T.Chandrasekar, Mr.T.Sreenivasulu, Mr.Sk.Md. Sartaj Basha, Mr.J.Muralitharan, Mr. V. Agastheeswaran, Mr. D. Sankar, Mr. Steny Thomas, Miss. Mary Vasanthakumary, Mrs. Shanmuga valli, Mr.S. Jesuraj, Mr. Suresh kumar, Mr. Govindaraj, Mr. Arokya Yesu Das and others, for their untiring effort and committed involvement in bringing out this book. Mr. R. Selvakumar, Research Associate and Mr.S. Gunasekaran, Research Scholar need special appreciation for ably coordinating the work. The editors record their deep sense of gratitude to Dr. V. S. Ramamurthy, Secretary, Department of Science and Technology for his leadership and to other members of NRDMS division for their support. The staff of M/S New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi need a special appreciation and acknowledgement for publishing this book with self styled elegance. The editors also convey their thanks to all the eminent scholars who have contributed the scientific articles.

The paper deals with the historical perspective of the tsunamis, much widely discussed Kumari Kandam and Lemuria continent and the palaeo-time series changes on the past continents and oceans, disastrous tsunamis since 16th century and archeological evidences indicating shore line changes along Tamil Nadu coast. Keywords: Ancient tsunamis in history, Kumari Kandam and Lemuria, Past shore line changes. INTRODUCTION A tsunami is a natural phenomenon consisting of a series of waves generated when water in a lake or the sea is rapidly displaced on a massive scale. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and large meteorite impacts all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The effects of a tsunami can range from unnoticeable phenomenon to large scale devastation. The term “tsunami” is derived from the Japanese language meaning harbour (“tsu”) and wave (“nami”). The term was coined by fishermen who returned to port to find the area surrounding the harbour devastated, although they had not been aware of any wave on the high seas. A tsunami is not a sub-surface event in the deep ocean; it simply has a much smaller amplitude (wave heights) offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometers long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a passing “hump” in the ocean. Tsunamis were historically referred to as tidal waves because when they approach land they take on the characteristics of a violent onrushing tide rather than the sort of cresting waves that are formed by wind action upon the ocean (with which people are more familiar). However, since they are not actually related to tides the term is considered misleading and its usage is discouraged by oceanographers.

Abstract There are two distinct types of oscillations in global oceans, separated in their frequencies by the period of the pendulum day. One species is the gravity waves and the other is the rotational waves, associated with earth’s rotation. Both these species can be found in tidal records around islands as well as near coastlines. These two types of modes are usually found in the tsunami records on tide gauges. The tide gauge records as well as visual descriptions of the water levels during and after the occurrence of a tsunami clearly show the presence of these oscillations. During the tsunami of 26th December 2004 in the Indian Ocean, media reports suggested high water levels persisted around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands for several days. These persistent high water levels can be explained by invoking the existence of trapped and partially leaky modes on the shelves surrounding these islands. Keywords: Oscillations in global waves, Tsunami (2004), Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Abstract An unprecedented tsunami hit the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry and Kerala on the 26th of December 2004. The loss of life and property, though wide spread in all these areas, was very severe in thickly populated low lying coasts, such as Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu. Survey of India, in association with the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi has taken-up the task of carrying out post-tsunami Mapping of the entire east coast of Tamil Nadu using Digital aerial stereo images acquired immediately after the tsunami. The project aims to generate ortho-rectified photographs on 1: 8000 scale, which are to be used for preparing damage assessment maps of the affected coastal areas. This paper discusses various issues related to Control Surveying, Digital Photogrammetry and Large Scale feature extraction that are involved in the mapping process in general and its credibility for tsunami damage assessment in particular. Keywords: Tsunami, Digital Photogrammetry, Tsunami damage assessment in India.

Abstract The major subduction of the Indian plate and the related high magnitude earthquake (>9M) occurred in Sumatra region, triggered a major tsunami on 26, Dec 2004 which caused massive disasters in many coastal regions of South Asian countries including India, killing tens of thousands of life and causing property loss of several million rupees. Duly realizing the credentials of Geospatial / Geomatics technology and the expertise of NRDMS, an all India coordinated programme was conceived by NRDMS on tsunami disaster assessment and got it executed through six specialized institutions working on geomatics technology in the country. In the programme, the tsunami disaster in terms of natural, physical and human resources were assessed using geomatics technology and village wise digital databases were generated which will form a potential baseline information in coastal area. Keywords: Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004, DST Initiatives, Disaster Assessment, Mitigation.

Abstract A very strong shallow focus submarine earthquake (of magnitude 9.0) occurred off the west coast of Sumatra Island due to the movement of Indian Plate and Burma Plate on 26th December 2004 at 06:18:53 IST. A vast area around its epicentre was rocked including Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of the eastern and western coasts of the Indian mainland. This earthquake had generated a global tsunami, which had also pounced on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and caused severe damage to the coastal population and infrastructure. Considering the devastation of this tsunamigenic earthquake, the Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India has launched a coordinated programme for imparting S & T inputs with futuristic approach to support rehabilitation programme in the affected areas on a sustainable manner. The main objective of the programme is to generate geospatial databases on damages and risk zonation using pre and post-tsunami remote sensing (RS) data along with collateral attribute data in GIS platform. This paper speaks on the damage assessment (both natural / physical resources and human resources) caused by the earthquake and tsunami covering parts of Andaman Islands along with strategies for risk management and constraints and alternatives for micro level planning. Keywords: Tsunamigenic earthquake, Damage Assessment, Remote Sensing and GIS, Andaman - Nicobar.

Abstract A large tsunami triggered due to a massive earthquake of 9.3M in the offshore of Sumatra on 26th December 2004 created havoc in several countries of the Indian Ocean. The deadly tsunami waves lashed the towns adjoining the coastline of several countries including Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, India and Sri Lanka causing more than 1,50,000 deaths. The earthquake occurred along the plate boundary is marked by a subduction zone between the Indian plate and the Burmese micro plate. In Andhra Pradesh, six coastal Districts were affected and amongst them four south coastal districts experienced maximum damage. In the present study, Tuppalapalem (vagarru revenue village) of Vakadu mandal, Nellore District was selected as a case study for discussion in the article. The objective of the study was to make an inventory of the damages to the natural and physical resources, by preparing pre and post-tsunami maps on geomorphology, land use / land cover, tsunami inundation and finally the tsunami risk zonation map on 1:8,000 scale. In this process, water and soil samples of the affected regions were also collected and chemical analysis was carried out. The data on damages were collected using a specially formulated data sheet. High resolution IKONOS data of January 2000 and IRS data of January 2005 were used for the generation of respectively the pre and post-tsunami geomorphology and land use / land cover maps. Ground truth data were also incorporated in these thematic maps. The study has revealed that the water in all the bore wells became brackish after tsunami. About 80 country boats, 40 fibre boats and nets were lost with an estimated loss of about one crore. The tidal waters damaged the bunds of the aqua-farms and deposited the transported sediments in them. The extensive casuarina plantations, were reduced by the onslaught of tsunami and the casuarina trees became brown due to their contact with tidal waters. From amongst the various geomorphic units mapped in the study area, the beach, spits, shoals, creeks, swales, palaeo creeks were inundated by tsunami where as beach ridges, dune complexes and stabilized sand dunes were not affected and hence inferred as barriers. Geomorphology, land use / land cover and the tsunami inundation maps, tsunami risk zonation map were prepared showing very high, high and moderate zones of tsunami risks. It is recommended to take up casuarina plantations extensively along the coast as a biowall, which will also provide employment to the local people. The shallow aquifers of the coastal environment were contaminated by the tidal waves. Hence, drinking water should be supplied through protected water supply schemes. As a part of the community development, proper awareness must be created through training and appraisal to the fisherman community to face such natural disasters. The coastal regulation zone act, which prohibits any construction activity within 500m of the high tide line, should be strictly enforced. Keeping in view of the experience, a holistic tsunami protection plan is needed to safe guard the Indian coasts.

Abstract The recent tsunami occurred on 26thDecember 2004, caused great devastation along the east coast of Tamil Nadu, India. As the said tsunami has caused colossal damages, the impact assessment has become essential for tsunami mitigation measures. In this context, the extent of tsunami inundation, loss of lives, property loss and damages to physical and natural resources have been assessed in the tsunami affected area between Ennore and Mahabalipuram along the east coast of Tamil Nadu. IRS LISS III PAN merged satellite data and IKONOS data were used for mapping the pre-tsunami geomorphology and land cover conditions and IRS-P6 PAN merged satellite data were used to map the post – tsunami terrain conditions including the inundations. From the study it is inferred that wherever buildings and population are denser the loss is more. Hence, vertical expansion may be needed as an alternative or to supplement horizontal expansion. Bio-shield along coastal areas, involving raising of mangrove forests, planting of casurina, salicornia, palms, bamboo and other tree species and halophytes which can grow near the sea will serve as speed-breakers for the up rising waves. Keywords: Tsunami, Damage Assessment, Mitigation Measures, Chennai region.

Abstract The tsunami has struck many coastal countries of South Asia on 26 December 2004 and caused greater devastation along Andaman - Nicobar and Indian coasts. In India, Tamil Nadu coast is worst affected in Kanyakumari, Nagapattinam and Cuddalore districts. Subsequently, damage assessment, in respect of natural and physical resources, was done using Remote Sensing and GIS in parts of Cuddalore and Pondicherry coasts. The structural damages were studied village wise and categorized as maximum, moderate and least affected areas. As far as the natural resources are concerned, the changes in geomorphology, land use/ land cover, soil and water have been studied. On the basis of the same, the risk maps were also generated in GIS environment. Keywords: Tsunami, Damage Assessment, Remote Sensing, GIS, Cuddalore, Pondicherry

Abstract Geomatics (Remote Sensing and GIS) based tsunami damage assessment was carried out for Nagapattinam coast as a part of All India Coordinated Programme of NRDMS, Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi. The paper discusses the methodology and the inferences made for Nagapattinam region, Sirkali block and north Poigainallur panchayat village, holistically for the former and as case studies for the latter two. The regional studies show that the coastal geomorphology has played a significant role in tutoring the tsunami inundation and the damages with beach, dunes, tidal flats, backwaters and rivers / streams facilitating the inundation of tsunami. The studies in Sirkali block show the similar role of geomorphology, but the damage assessment carried out for Water bodies, soil and ground water show appreciable damage to Aquifer in the form of saltwater mixing / intrusion due to tsunami. Detailed geospatial data bases were generated village wise too. On the basis of the studies, possible remedial strategies were also suggested. Keywords: Remote Sensing, GIS, Tsunami 2004, Damage Assessment, Tsunami mitigation, Nagapattinam.

Abstract The damages caused by the tsunami surge of 26, December 2004 could not be recuperated. There is no second opinion for the above statement as attested by the consequences of tsunami surge on the coastal landforms, human lives, properties, biological assets, etc., The attempt made to evaluate the damages caused by the tsunami surge along the study area divulges various factors regarding the response of the coastal environment to this weird phenomenon. Kanyakumari district witnessed the tidal inundation of 50 – 450 m, the least along Colachel and the maximum in Kanyakumari and Muttom coasts. Run-up elevations were seen even up to 6 m in Manakudi and Colachel coasts. In major parts, the beaches of the study area had endured lofty erosion of beach sediments. High occurrence of Casualty was reported in the Coasts of Colachel, Kotilpadu, Manakudi and Azhikkal. Similarly, loss of man-made structures were also observed to be high along the Coast of Manakudi, Colachel, Kotilpadu, Azhikkal and Muttom. Costly articles like boats, fishing nets, etc., were also damaged in Kanyakumari, Pallam, Muttom, Kadiapatanam, Kesavanputhenthurai and Colachel. The quality of water has also been found to be affected with high level of pH and TDS in the coasts of Manakudi and Colachel. Such Colossal damages in the area is attributed to its geo-position exactly at the receiving point of the diverted tsunami surge by Sri Lanka. Bathymetry also seems to have played a crucial role in determining the intensity and angle of the seismic wave propagation in the area. Keywords: Tsunami, India, Damages in Kanyakumari, Evaluation, Map, GIS.

Abstract The seaquake on 26th December 2004 with its epicenter at Sumatra triggered a tsunami, which had a major impact on South East Asian countries. During that incident, the average height of the tsunami wave was 7-10 m and the penetration of seawater was up to 1-1.5 km. The surface water resources meant for irrigation and other drinking purposes got affected by the ingress of seawater in many areas. The direct environmental impacts of the tsunami have more impact along the entire east coast and caused more damages in coastal systems. The physical and chemical perturbations caused in the coastal zone by the tidal waves are discussed. In order to assess the environmental impact on coastal system, it is suggested that significant physical and biogeochemical factors could be framed to quantify the problems. Keywords: Tsunami, Physical and Chemical Alterations, Coastal zone.

Abstract The Car Nicobar Island is one of the several islands in Indian Ocean which was severally damaged by the Great tsunami on 26 December 2004. The great tsunami event caused massive devastation, in the form of loss of life and property in south and south East Asia. The objectives of the study are to assess the changes in the coastal features of the Car Nicobar Island using various indicators such as the tsunami height, run- up elevation, water flow direction, erosion, sand deposition and coastal subsidence. Andaman &Nicobar Islands are the summit of the submarine mountain range lying along the great tectonic suture zone extending from Eastern Himalaya to Sumatra and Lesser Sunda via Myanmar border and Arakan hills. The IRS P-6 satellite data has been found to be very useful in the present tsunami assessment studies. The digital analysis of the satellite data was done using the image processing software (ERDAS IMAGINE 8.4) and DTM to quantify the tsunami height (15 m), run up elevation (2-19 m), inundation (295-1203 m) and coastal responses. The settlements and coconut plantations have been severely damaged in the island, which were assessed using GIS analysis of the pre and post-tsunami satellite data. Keywords: Tsunami, Wave Height, Run-up Elevation, Inundation, Coastal Responses, Remote Sensing, GIS.

Abstract Coral reefs, the marine representatives of tropical forests, coupled with the sea grasses contribute considerably to the coastal productivity. Damages to these ecosystems will immediately affect the fishery productivity of the region. Due to this, the long-term ecological impact of the recent tsunami will be a serious set back to the local, national and regional economy than the immediate losses. Andaman and Nicobar reefs represent the second largest coral reef formation next to the Great Barrier Reef and are also comparable to the coral reefs of Indonesia and Philippines in terms of diversity of species and associated floral and faunal components. The recent mega – subduction of the Indian plate below the Burmese micro – plate in Andaman – Sumatra region has not only deepened the southern and uplifted the northern group of Andaman – Nicobar islands but also created a disastrous tsunami on Dec 26, 2004. While such tectonic changes are expected to cause longterm changes in the coral reefs of Andaman, Nicobar group of islands, the tsunami has damaged the coral reefs instantaneously. However, the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay are not much affected by the tsunami by virtue of their geographic position in the shadow region of Sri Lanka. Keywords: Indian coral reefs, Tsunami effect, Coral recovery

Abstract The mangrove wetlands form dynamic ecotones between land and sea. Mangrove wetlands are unique in terms of environment, plant and animal communities and their distribution is restricted in tropical and subtropical coastlines. They perform a number of protective and productive functions, which ensures ecological and livelihood security to the coastal communities. The role of mangroves in mitigating the impact of cyclones and storm surges is well known but only limited information is available on their role in reducing the impact of tsunami. The Pichavaram mangroves, located on the southeast coast of India in Tamil Nadu, which was hit by the 26 December 2004 tsunami, provided opportunities to understand the contribution of it in tsunami mitigation. Through a systematic field study, a comparative analysis was made on the impact of tsunami in a set of villages, one was protected by mangroves and the other lacks any vegetation surrounding it. These villages are located at more or less equal distance from the sea and situated at about same elevation. Assessment carried out with well defined indicators such as loss of lives due to forceful entry of tsunami water, damages to houses and types of houses, etc., shows that loss of lives and damage to houses were much less in the village surrounded by Pichavaram mangroves. Thus, Pichavaram mangrove wetland, which was restored with the participation of the local community, Tamil Nadu Forest Department and M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) during 1993-2004 provided great dividend during tsunami. This underlines the importance of strengthening the ecological foundation of the coastal zone with mangroves and other vegetation as one of the strategies for mitigating the impact of natural disasters in the coastal areas. Keywords: Mangroves, Natural Disasters, Tsunami, Impact Reduction and Pichavaram.

Abstract Ennore is an industrial region having many industries on chemicals, fertilizers, refineries etc., discharging their effluents into the Buckingham canal. Present study focuses on the impact of tsunami on water quality of Buckingham Canal segment found to the north of Chennai city, Tamil Nadu, India, in addition to the human interferences. Water samples were collected from surface and near bottom at five locations covering about 20km stretch of the Buckingham Canal during high tide on the spring tide day before (December 2004) and after (January 2005) the mega tsunami. Various water quality parameters measured were pH, Temperature, Salinity, Dissolved Oxygen, Suspended Particulate Matter, Nutrients and Chlorophyll. The maximum depth observed in the canal was 2.5m in December, whereas a shallow depth of less than 0.5m was recorded in January. The water quality analyses confirmed the incursion of saline water (upto 32ppt) into the Canal. Not much variations were observed in Dissolved Oxygen and pH. Because of the organic pollution in the canal, the water was rich in nutrients before tsunami, whereas due to the large quantity of seawater invasion, dilution had occurred after tsunami. High turbidity was observed in January 2005 indicating the tsunami induced disturbance and resuspension of the sediments from sea bed. Keywords: Tsunami, Ennore, Tamil Nadu, Buckingham Canal.

Abstract Tsunami (2004), that struck the Tamil Nadu coast has left deep marks in the minds of the affected society. The interview conducted in the coastal villages of the tsunami affected Nagapattinam has brought out many salient societal issues like, loss of leadership, widow hood, debt grip, psychological depression etc, which warrant deeper look to bring them out from the syndrome. Keywords: Tsunami (2004), Social issues, Nagapattinam, India INTRODUCTION The damages caused by tsunami (2004) along the coastlines of most of the South Asian countries are indelible not only from the minds of the coastal population but also from the heart of the entire humanity. The worst affected in the disaster are the fishing community. Many of their mechanized and un-mechanized boats and catamarans were converted to useless debris and garbages by the heartless tsunami. When their settlements themselves were swallowed even with out chewing, nothing to talk about their fishing nets which were just blown off by the ferocious tsunami. In addition, the infrastructure facilities like roads, communication systems, water and power supply were also incalculably damaged. Next to fishermen community, the affected souls were the farmers whose cultivable lands were turned into marine wet lands with swimming and tossing fishes. The Indian subcontinent was facing such onslaughts of various natural disasters periodically but our morale always stood by our side prohibiting us declaring them as national calamities for getting international aids. Specifically in this case, the central and state governments, NGOs and Voluntary Organizations have risen phenomenally to help the affected who were in need. Despite best efforts taken to provide relief and rehabilitation to the affected people, the tsunami has seedled some societal issues / syndrome, which may take long years to settle; it may not settle too. The paper discusses some of such issues gulled out through the interview conducted amongst various cross sections of the affected community.

Abstract During natural disasters, mostly panic and curiosity lead to greater causalities. But the tsunami is such a disaster which no one have witnessed during their life time nor heard of from their ancestors. On 26, December 2004, tsunami has struck all of a sudden many South Asian coasts including the east coast of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh causing greater devastation and causalities. This historical event has taught us many lessons and the paper deals with some aspects related to tsunami from the citizen’s view point. Keywords: Natural calamities, Tsunami mechanisms, Mitigation strategies, Citizen’s perspective. INTRODUCTION The tsunami that ravaged the coasts of South India had left tell tale signs that affirm the need for early warning systems as well as well-planned mitigation measures for the benefit of the affected. Over the last 12 months, since the tsunami struck the east coast of India on 26 Dec. 2004, numerous seminars, discussions, programmes and project proposals have been deliberated on various aspects that deserve attention. Government agencies, self-help groups and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have done commendable post-tsunami work. All sections of the society have responded both emotionally and rationally to the event in an unprecedented manner. In retrospect, to the informed citizen – one who has heard about the event, read about it and discussed it with others, though not have had the ‘experience’ of the natural disaster by himself / herself - what do all these mean ? the tragedy and its aftermath. This paper documents the issues that a citizen would like to ponder over so as to understand the various dimensions of the post-tsunami activities and draw a few lessons that the tragedy had taught us. The major issues pertain to (i) the mechanisms (ii) the coastal vulnerability and the need for assessment (iii) mitigation strategies (iv) media exposition (v) communication networking and (vi) educational facilitation.

Abstract The paper deals with the roles played by the NGO’s in the relief and rescue phase of Dec, 2004 tsunami and the effective role played by NCRC -NGO Coordination and Research Centre - in the rehabilitation phase along Tamil Nadu coast by creating successful partnership with government and the public. Keywords: The Role of NGO’s, Tsunami 2004, Relief and Rehabilitation, NGO Coordination Research Centre. INTRODUCTION The scale of the tsunami disaster was unprecedented and the response too was out of the ordinary. Tamil Nadu was the worst affected state in India with Nagapattinam district being the most affected with over 6000 lives lost, about 40,000 houses damaged or destroyed and 1.96 lakh people affected. Relief poured in from both government and non-governmental organizations, including the religious organizations, and the first few days witnessed heartwarming outpourings of help and support. There were about 400 NGOs and an equal number of volunteers to help in the relief operations which included food, clothing, household utensils and bedding. With such a large scale of external support, mainly from organizations and people from outside Nagapattinam, it was not surprising that chaos and confusion marked the first few days of relief operations still. Based on the experience of some professionals experienced in disaster management, a coordination platform was created called the NGO Coordination Cell. This platform was managed by two NGOs, who had long standing field presence in Nagapattinam, viz., South Indian Federation of Fishermen Societies and SNEHA, with the mandate and support of the District Administration. The main role of this platform was to meet the field based requirements of all the relief camps with the resources and materials available with the NGOs and the Govt. The paper briefly deals with challenges faced by the NGO’s in relief and Rehabilitation of the historical Dec 2004, Tsunami.

Abstract Though people belonging to different disciplines from the common citizen to top level administrators are familiar with cyclones, floods, earthquakes, landslides, droughts, etc., the tsunami which struck and devastated over 1000 km long Tamil Nadu coast was not only unexpected but also an unknown phenomenon for the people of this part of the region. The Government of Tamil Nadu, though faced with this disaster for the first time, has efficiently managed the crisis owing to clear policy directions from the top political executive of the government, the planned working of the ministers, the committed service rendered by the senior officials and the tireless efforts of district collectors and their supporting staff down the line. The immediate measures taken in search, rescue and relief operations are detailed in this paper. Also covered are the rehabilitation measures undertaken including those for orphaned children and unmarried girls and the steps adopted for the prevention of epidemics. Keywords: Tsunami Disaster, State Administration, Relief and Rehabilitation, Tamil Nadu. INTRODUCTION India is traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been occurring regularly in some part of the country or the other. In Tamil Nadu, the unprecedented drought in 2002-03, followed by another drought of comparatively less severity in 2003-04 and the floods in the northern coastal districts in October-November, 2004 had kept the State machinery on constant alert. But the tsunami that struck the coastal districts on 26th December, 2004 was an altogether new and nightmarish experience. It was a disaster, the like of which, had not been seen before. The suddenness and the ferocity with which the waves gushed into the habitations along the 1076 km long coast line, taking the people totally unaware, caused unprecedented damage, death and destruction and posed the greatest challenge to the State administration. However, the state faced the challenge successfully, thanks to the vision and commitment shown by the Government and the timely help rendered by a number of non-governmental organisations and groups.

Abstract Subsequent to December 26th 2004 historical Tsunami, The Government of India has conceived a master plan for setting up Tsunami Warning System (TWS) similar to Pacific Ocean Tsunami Warning System. Concurrently, the union Govt has also initiated scientific studies through Department of Science and Technology and the significant amongst these are the All India Co-ordinated Programme on Tsunami disaster and risk assessment using GIS technology and Bilateral programme with Norway to know the know – how and capacity building in the fields of Landslides and Tsunami As a part of this bilateral mission, the authors visited institutions connected to Geohazards and Tsunami affected areas of Norway. The article briefly narrates the salient inferences on the Tsunami scenario and the related studies in Norway. Keywords: Landslides triggered tsunamis, Norway

Author Index (A-Z) Agastheeswaran, 107 Annie George, 209 Arthur James, R., 147 Arun Kumar, 155 Bhoop Singh, 31, 155, 221 Chandrasekar, N., 135 Chandrasekaran, R., 87 Chingkhei, R.K., 155