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Preface
Mildews on plants include downy mildews and powdery mildews and are one of the important diseases of crop plants. Mildews occurs on cereal crops, pulse crops, oilseed crops, fiber crops, cash crops , vegetable crops, fruit crops, spices crop, ornamental and flowering plants, medicinal and aromatic plants, forage crops and forest trees and causes enormous losses in the absence of suitable control measures. These losses includes the loss of crop foliage (in leafy vegetables), grains (in cereals), deformation of fruits (in fruit crops), death of plants (in cereals and vegetables) and quality of yield (in fruit crops). The losses reported due to mildews are as high as 60 percent in grapevine in term of fruit quality and crop monetary returns. Total crop loss can occur in case of susceptible variety of the crop to mildews. The mildew disease occurs in all the continents of the world on all kind of crop plants. Application of appropriate fungicides are important to control these diseases as many mildew pathogens have developed the fungicidal resistant.
The book “The Plant Mildews: A Colour Handbook” includes 24 chapters. 11 chapters are on downy mildews of various crop plants with 55 downy mildew diseases while 13 chapters are on powdery mildew diseases of various crops with 92 powdery mildew diseases. The mildew diseases around the world included in the book are 147 with detailed information on each mildew disease including pathogen responsible, its host range, geographical distribution, disease symptoms, epidemic and losses, disease cycle, weather parameters and disease forecasting, and disease managements.
Preface
Mildews on plants include downy mildews and powdery mildews and are one of the important diseases of crop plants. Mildews occurs on cereal crops, pulse crops, oilseed crops, fiber crops, cash crops , vegetable crops, fruit crops, spices crop, ornamental and flowering plants, medicinal and aromatic plants, forage crops and forest trees and causes enormous losses in the absence of suitable control measures. These losses includes the loss of crop foliage (in leafy vegetables), grains (in cereals), deformation of fruits (in fruit crops), death of plants (in cereals and vegetables) and quality of yield (in fruit crops). The losses reported due to mildews are as high as 60 percent in grapevine in term of fruit quality and crop monetary returns. Total crop loss can occur in case of susceptible variety of the crop to mildews. The mildew disease occurs in all the continents of the world on all kind of crop plants. Application of appropriate fungicides are important to control these diseases as many mildew pathogens have developed the fungicidal resistant.
The book “The Plant Mildews: A Colour Handbook” includes 24 chapters. 11 chapters are on downy mildews of various crop plants with 55 downy mildew diseases while 13 chapters are on powdery mildew diseases of various crops with 92 powdery mildew diseases. The mildew diseases around the world included in the book are 147 with detailed information on each mildew disease including pathogen responsible, its host range, geographical distribution, disease symptoms, epidemic and losses, disease cycle, weather parameters and disease forecasting, and disease managements.
1 An Introduction to Downy Mildew
Downy mildew is refered to a condition of plant disease where the fungal growth and infection appears on the dorsal side of the leaf surface while the corresponding ventral side of the leaf shows faint yellowish color. It is also refered to the fungus which causes this disease.The word mildew in Latin language means mil + dew i.e honey like dews.The fungal growth on plant surface resembles to the milky dews in the beginging which turn to golden brownish honey like dews in later stage. Subsequently the affected areas turn grayish brown and dry. Besides the infection of leaves, the fungus also infects the fruits. The downy mildew infection on fruits causes the deformities on the affected fruits. The infection of the downy mildew pathogen on some of the cereals like pearlmillet causes the symptoms like green ear disease .
Downy mildew pathogens can cause major damage in the nursery, in greenhouse, in field crops and in landscape in the form of leaf spots, blights, and distortions with mildew growth. Downy mildews are primarily foliage blights with mildew growth of the fungus on affected portion. The fungus attack and spread rapidly in young, tender green leaf, twig, and fruit tissues. The fungal development are severe when a film of water is present on the plant tissues and the relative humidity in the air is high during cool or warm, but not hot, periods. Downy mildews can cause severe losses in short periods of time. Downy mildews often cause rapid and severe losses of young crop plants still in the seedbed or in the field. They often destroy from 40 to 90% of the young plants or young shoots in the field, causing heavy or total losses of crop yields. The severity of loss depends on the prolonged presence of wet, cool weather during which the downy mildews fungus sporulate profusely, cause numerous new infections, and spread into and rapidly kill young succulent tissues.
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Downy mildew is refered to a condition of plant disease where the fungal growth and infection appears on the dorsal side of the leaf surface while the corresponding ventral side of the leaf shows faint yellowish color. It is also refered to the fungus which causes this disease.The word mildew in Latin language means mil + dew i.e honey like dews.The fungal growth on plant surface resembles to the milky dews in the beginging which turn to golden brownish honey like dews in later stage. Subsequently the affected areas turn grayish brown and dry. Besides the infection of leaves, the fungus also infects the fruits. The downy mildew infection on fruits causes the deformities on the affected fruits. The infection of the downy mildew pathogen on some of the cereals like pearlmillet causes the symptoms like green ear disease .
Downy mildew pathogens can cause major damage in the nursery, in greenhouse, in field crops and in landscape in the form of leaf spots, blights, and distortions with mildew growth. Downy mildews are primarily foliage blights with mildew growth of the fungus on affected portion. The fungus attack and spread rapidly in young, tender green leaf, twig, and fruit tissues. The fungal development are severe when a film of water is present on the plant tissues and the relative humidity in the air is high during cool or warm, but not hot, periods. Downy mildews can cause severe losses in short periods of time. Downy mildews often cause rapid and severe losses of young crop plants still in the seedbed or in the field. They often destroy from 40 to 90% of the young plants or young shoots in the field, causing heavy or total losses of crop yields. The severity of loss depends on the prolonged presence of wet, cool weather during which the downy mildews fungus sporulate profusely, cause numerous new infections, and spread into and rapidly kill young succulent tissues.
2 Downy Mildew of Cereals
2.1. Downy mildew of Sorghum
Pathogen: Peronosclerospora sorghi (W. Weston & Uppal) C.G. Shaw, (1978)
Host plants
Major hosts: Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), Sorghum caffrorum, Sorghum Sudanese (sudan grass), Zea diploperennis, Zea mays.
Minor hosts: Andropogon sorghi, Panicum trypheron, Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet), Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass), Zea mexicana (teosinte)
Geographic Distribution
It is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions. Sorghum downy mildew is widely distributed in following countries.
Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Iran, Israel, Japan, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and Yemen (CMI, 1988; Jeger et al., 1998).In India though the losses are reported from the states of U.P. and Madhya Pradesh, the disease is very common and destructive in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra
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2.1. Downy mildew of Sorghum
Pathogen: Peronosclerospora sorghi (W. Weston & Uppal) C.G. Shaw, (1978)
Host plants
Major hosts: Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), Sorghum caffrorum, Sorghum Sudanese (sudan grass), Zea diploperennis, Zea mays.
Minor hosts: Andropogon sorghi, Panicum trypheron, Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet), Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass), Zea mexicana (teosinte)
Geographic Distribution
It is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions. Sorghum downy mildew is widely distributed in following countries.
Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Iran, Israel, Japan, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and Yemen (CMI, 1988; Jeger et al., 1998).In India though the losses are reported from the states of U.P. and Madhya Pradesh, the disease is very common and destructive in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra
3 Downy Mildew of Pulses
3.1. Downy mildew of peas
It is an important disease of pea crop particularly in those areas where cool and wet climate is prevalent during its cultivation. The disease during favourable weather conditions causes considerable yield losses.
Pathogen: Peronospora viciae (formerly P. pisi)
Host range
Vigna faba, Vigna sativa. Pisum arvensis, P.sativum, Lathyrus sativus, Vicia hirsuta, Vicia sativa, Vicia villosa (Dixon, 1981).
Geographical distribution
Reports of the pathogen are from different countries on different crop host.
On Pea- Berkeley in England first discovered the disease in 1846 (Chupp and Sherf, 1960) and since then it has been found in all parts of the world where the crop is grown intensively. The occurrence of the disease has been reported from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Denmark, France, Germany, Kenya, Netherland, New Zealand, Rhodesia, Spain, Tasmania, USA, Ukrain, Italy, Poland and Australia (Dixon,1981). In India it is prevalent in Indogangetic plains including Uttar Pradesh and Punjab (Bains and Dhaliwal, 1986).
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3.1. Downy mildew of peas
It is an important disease of pea crop particularly in those areas where cool and wet climate is prevalent during its cultivation. The disease during favourable weather conditions causes considerable yield losses.
Pathogen: Peronospora viciae (formerly P. pisi)
Host range
Vigna faba, Vigna sativa. Pisum arvensis, P.sativum, Lathyrus sativus, Vicia hirsuta, Vicia sativa, Vicia villosa (Dixon, 1981).
Geographical distribution
Reports of the pathogen are from different countries on different crop host.
On Pea- Berkeley in England first discovered the disease in 1846 (Chupp and Sherf, 1960) and since then it has been found in all parts of the world where the crop is grown intensively. The occurrence of the disease has been reported from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Denmark, France, Germany, Kenya, Netherland, New Zealand, Rhodesia, Spain, Tasmania, USA, Ukrain, Italy, Poland and Australia (Dixon,1981). In India it is prevalent in Indogangetic plains including Uttar Pradesh and Punjab (Bains and Dhaliwal, 1986).
4 Downy Mildew of Oilseed Crops
4.1. Downy mildew of sunflower
Pathogen: Plasmopara halstedii (Fort.) Berl.& de Tom.
Hosts
Over 100 host species from a wide range of genera in the family Asteraceae have been reported susceptible to this pathogen, including wild and cultivated species of Helianthus, e.g. sunflowers, which is the principal economic host. Wild Asteraceae hosts (e.g. species of the genera Helianthus, Artemisia, Xanthium, etc.) may also occur widely in the corresponding areas but their potential as reservoirs of the pest is not yet known (Virányi, 1984). For lists of hosts see Leppik (1966) and Novotel’nova (1966).
Geographical distribution
EPPO region: Present wherever sunflowers are grown, in Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Egypt, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Moldova, Morocco, Poland (unconfirmed), Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, Russia (European, Siberia), Ukraine and Yugoslavia.
Asia: Azerbaijan, China, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Russia (Siberia), Turkey.
Africa: Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Zimbabwe, Uganda.
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4.1. Downy mildew of sunflower
Pathogen: Plasmopara halstedii (Fort.) Berl.& de Tom.
Hosts
Over 100 host species from a wide range of genera in the family Asteraceae have been reported susceptible to this pathogen, including wild and cultivated species of Helianthus, e.g. sunflowers, which is the principal economic host. Wild Asteraceae hosts (e.g. species of the genera Helianthus, Artemisia, Xanthium, etc.) may also occur widely in the corresponding areas but their potential as reservoirs of the pest is not yet known (Virányi, 1984). For lists of hosts see Leppik (1966) and Novotel’nova (1966).
Geographical distribution
EPPO region: Present wherever sunflowers are grown, in Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Egypt, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Moldova, Morocco, Poland (unconfirmed), Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, Russia (European, Siberia), Ukraine and Yugoslavia.
Asia: Azerbaijan, China, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Russia (Siberia), Turkey.
Africa: Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Zimbabwe, Uganda.
6 Downy Mildew of Cash Crops
6.1. Downy mildew of Sugarcane
Pathogen: Sugarcane downy mildew can be caused by four species:
1) Peronosclerospora sacchari
2) P. miscanthi
3) P. spontanea and
4) P. philippinensis
Major Host
Hosts in the Saccharum genus include: S. officinarum, S. robustum, S. spontaneum and S. edule.
Minor Host
Other hosts include Zea mays (maize), teosinte (Euchlaena mexicana), Sorghum halapense (Johnson grass), S. sudanense (Sudan grass), Tripsacum dactyloides (Gama grass), Sorghum bicolor (broom corn). Other studies suggest there are 18 species that are systemically infected in the sub-family Panicoideae; these include species of Andropogon, Bothriochloa, Eulalia, Schizachyrium and Sorghum (Bonde & Peterson 1981)
Geographic Distribution
The disease is restricted to the Pacific, South Asia and South East Asian regions viz Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand (Suma & Magarey 2000).
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6.1. Downy mildew of Sugarcane
Pathogen: Sugarcane downy mildew can be caused by four species:
1) Peronosclerospora sacchari
2) P. miscanthi
3) P. spontanea and
4) P. philippinensis
Major Host
Hosts in the Saccharum genus include: S. officinarum, S. robustum, S. spontaneum and S. edule.
Minor Host
Other hosts include Zea mays (maize), teosinte (Euchlaena mexicana), Sorghum halapense (Johnson grass), S. sudanense (Sudan grass), Tripsacum dactyloides (Gama grass), Sorghum bicolor (broom corn). Other studies suggest there are 18 species that are systemically infected in the sub-family Panicoideae; these include species of Andropogon, Bothriochloa, Eulalia, Schizachyrium and Sorghum (Bonde & Peterson 1981)
Geographic Distribution
The disease is restricted to the Pacific, South Asia and South East Asian regions viz Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand (Suma & Magarey 2000).
8 Downy Mildew of Vegetables
8.1. Downy mildew of cruciferous vegetables
Cruciferous vegetables are important Kharif vegetable crops, which are grown both for table and seed purpose. This vegetable group constitutes crops like cauliflower, cabbage, radish, turnip, broccoli, brussel’s sprouts; knol-khol and rutabaga .The vegetable crops affected by downy mildews pathogen Peronospora parasitica are members of the genus Brassica and the downy mildew diseases on these crops are widespread in those regions of the world, which have cool and wet climate.
Geographical distribution
The downy mildew disease on cruciferous crops has worldwide distribution. The disease was first recorded in 1883 in USA on Brassica spp. (Farlow, 1883). In India, this disease was first reported by Butler in 1918. Subsequently various authors reported this disease from many countries of the world (Channon, 1981) particularly Angola (Serafim and Serafim, 1968), Argentine (Lindquist, 1939), Australia (Samuel, 1925; Anon., 1955), Austria (Glaeser, 1970), Bermuda (Waters-ton, 1940), Brazil (Grillo, 1937), Britain (Moore, 1959), Brunei (Herb. IMI), Canada (Jones, 1944; Downey and Bolton, 1961), Chile (Mujica and Vergara, 1960), China (Porter, 1926; Pai, 1957), Columbia (Orjuela, 1965), Costa Rica (McGuire and Crandall, 1967), Cuba (Fernandez Rosenada, 1973), Cyprus (Herb.IMI), Czechoslovakia (Rydl, 1968), Denmark (Gram and Rostrup, 1924), Dominica (Anon., 1972a), Egypt (Elarosi and Assawah, 1959), Ethiopia (Herb. IMI), Fiji (Anon, 1969), Finland (Herb. IMI), France (Darpoux, 1945), Germany (Neumann, 1955), Greece (Herb.IMI), Guatemala (Muller, 1950), Haiti (Anon., 1972a), Hong-Kong (Johnston, 1963), India (Thind, 1942), Iran (Ershad, 1977), Iraq (Herb.IMI), Israel (Peleg, 1953), Italy (Ciferri, 1961), Jamaica (Leather, 1967), Japan (Hiura and Kanegae, 1934), Kampuchea (Soonthronpoct, 1969), Kenya (Anon., 1957), Korea (Anon., 1972b), Libya (Herb.IMI), Malawi (Peregrine and Siddiqi, 1972), Malaysia (Mcintosh, 1951), Malta (Herb.IMI), Mauritius (Orian, 1951), Mexico (Rodriguez, 1972), Morocco (Herb. IMI) , Mozambique (Decarvalho, 1948), Nepal (Bhatt, 1966), Netherlands (Thung, 1926b), New Zealand
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8.1. Downy mildew of cruciferous vegetables
Cruciferous vegetables are important Kharif vegetable crops, which are grown both for table and seed purpose. This vegetable group constitutes crops like cauliflower, cabbage, radish, turnip, broccoli, brussel’s sprouts; knol-khol and rutabaga .The vegetable crops affected by downy mildews pathogen Peronospora parasitica are members of the genus Brassica and the downy mildew diseases on these crops are widespread in those regions of the world, which have cool and wet climate.
Geographical distribution
The downy mildew disease on cruciferous crops has worldwide distribution. The disease was first recorded in 1883 in USA on Brassica spp. (Farlow, 1883). In India, this disease was first reported by Butler in 1918. Subsequently various authors reported this disease from many countries of the world (Channon, 1981) particularly Angola (Serafim and Serafim, 1968), Argentine (Lindquist, 1939), Australia (Samuel, 1925; Anon., 1955), Austria (Glaeser, 1970), Bermuda (Waters-ton, 1940), Brazil (Grillo, 1937), Britain (Moore, 1959), Brunei (Herb. IMI), Canada (Jones, 1944; Downey and Bolton, 1961), Chile (Mujica and Vergara, 1960), China (Porter, 1926; Pai, 1957), Columbia (Orjuela, 1965), Costa Rica (McGuire and Crandall, 1967), Cuba (Fernandez Rosenada, 1973), Cyprus (Herb.IMI), Czechoslovakia (Rydl, 1968), Denmark (Gram and Rostrup, 1924), Dominica (Anon., 1972a), Egypt (Elarosi and Assawah, 1959), Ethiopia (Herb. IMI), Fiji (Anon, 1969), Finland (Herb. IMI), France (Darpoux, 1945), Germany (Neumann, 1955), Greece (Herb.IMI), Guatemala (Muller, 1950), Haiti (Anon., 1972a), Hong-Kong (Johnston, 1963), India (Thind, 1942), Iran (Ershad, 1977), Iraq (Herb.IMI), Israel (Peleg, 1953), Italy (Ciferri, 1961), Jamaica (Leather, 1967), Japan (Hiura and Kanegae, 1934), Kampuchea (Soonthronpoct, 1969), Kenya (Anon., 1957), Korea (Anon., 1972b), Libya (Herb.IMI), Malawi (Peregrine and Siddiqi, 1972), Malaysia (Mcintosh, 1951), Malta (Herb.IMI), Mauritius (Orian, 1951), Mexico (Rodriguez, 1972), Morocco (Herb. IMI) , Mozambique (Decarvalho, 1948), Nepal (Bhatt, 1966), Netherlands (Thung, 1926b), New Zealand