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Preface
The enviable rich plant biodiversity of India and its extensive long term use for centuries by the traditional medicinal systems provide a unique opportunity for creating new knowledge and products that are relevant to human health, nutrition and food. A large number of plants have become a part of cultural traditions of India. Also, a large body of impressive knowledge on some of the important plants of medicinal and nutraceutical value has accumulated during last several decades. Recent advances in modern biology, pharmacology, chemistry and other cognate disciplines have opened up unprecedented new opportunities of research for developing new products and for adding refinement and value to existing products and prescriptions. In fact, we are at the threshold of a revolution in healthcare aptly termed as ‘Green Medicine ’. In green medicine, the concept of traditional medicine will be integrated with modern medicine. The knowledge of disease biology, genomics, microbiome and plant based phytopharmaceuticals/nutraceuticals will redraw and redefine the contours of expectations of, how to comprehensively promote wellness, vigour and health of the large human and livestock population. It is ironic that in spite of such a rich scientific and traditional knowledge base on medicinal and nutraceutical plants globally (particularly in US and China), the quality of research problems being addressed in India on indigenous and endemic plant species leaves so much to be desired.
The primary motivation for writing this book was to collate scientific information on some of the most privileged plants used in India and to give a critical analysis of next-generation research problems worth pursuing. We have identified a set of ten plants which have great potential for safeguarding and promoting wellness and human health and possess promising potential of product development for commerce. Recent global regulatory developments, exemplified by US-FDA creating a road-map for marketing approval of plant-based botanical drugs and nutritional supplements, has opened up global market for Indian medicinal plants. Over a hundred Indian plants that have been used in traditional systems of medicine for centuries have now been recognized and included in the global pharmacopoeias (US, EU and Japan). In 2015, the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI) has created a separate category for phytopharmaceutical drugs, and over 100 plants have been approved by Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) for inclusion as nutritional products.
Currently, an overwhelming proportion of plant material used for compounding herbal drugs and nutraceuticals is collected from the wild. The enormous amount of plant material extracted from the limited plant populations available in natural stands has become a cause of justifiable alarm. The unscrupulous plunder of plant populations growing wild in nature is pushing increasing number of relevant species to the endangered category and many to the verge of extinction. Also, unethical practices like adulteration and storage of medicinal plants under unacceptable conditions are rampant. All this is happening, when the consumer is becoming increasingly quality conscious and is demanding traceability of source material used for formulations and adherence to good practices for the entire chain of manufacturing processes for herbal drugs and plant-based nutraceuticals. Clearly, solution to this problem lies in replacing the ‘collection from the wild ’ paradigm to ‘production by cultivation ’. An essential prerequisite for meeting this goal is a well thought out research agenda which goes far beyond standardizing agronomic practices for increasing productivity of the material currently at hand. This task will require addressing the entire chain of interventions relevant to upgrading the genetic productivity potential of the targeted plant species and mounting planned research on all aspects that are crucial for improving the productivity potential of chosen plant species and biochemical and pharmacological characteristics for which the targeted plant is valued.
One of the important prerequisites for enhanced productivity would be to work out the best agronomic management protocols. Standard agronomic practices will need to be worked out for higher biomassproductivity but ensuring that the content of pharmaceutically important entities is maintained at high levels.
Genetic up-gradation is the real and sustainable route to productivity improvement. Genetic variability is a pivotal requirement for genetic enhancement programmes. The genetic variation in plants is due to their sexual system, which affects the genetic structure and dynamics of populations within the species. Thorough understanding of differences in floral and reproductive features is critical to creating and managing genetic variation in plants. Understanding of the genetic system is fundamental for undertaking any genetic improvement programme for higher yield and quality attributes. Variation forms the bed-rock for plant breeders to create new varieties of commerce. Breeding systems provide the transport to carry genetic variation from generation to generation. Evolutionary and ecological studies also require a comprehensive account on phenology. Further, germplasm is an important requirement, firstly as a starting point for successful introduction of a new plant to commerce and later for upgrading the plant for productivity and quality attributes. For genetic improvement approach to succeed and deliver the expected results will require systematic work for gaining insight into a number of biological characteristics of the targeted plant species. The information collated in this book indicates that, for most plant species dealt with, critical details of key biological aspects and parameters are not available. This deficiency must be addressed on urgent basis by developing a well thought out and dynamic research agenda.
The biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites is tightly regulated by spatial and temporal cues that control the levels of targeted secondary metabolites in plant tissues. It is also important to understand as to how environmental factors influence production of phytomedicinally relevant compounds. This is of key significance for optimizing field growth conditions, crop geometry and agronomic inputs for maximal recovery of phytomedicinal chemicals. Information on growth and development pattern (plant phenology) and compatible environmental requirements such as season, rainfall, humidity, photoperiod etc., would be a prerequisite for successful cultivation. Information about diseases/pests prevalent in natural habits would be of immense value for avoiding or restricting damage from diseases and pests when these plants are brought under cultivation. It is also important to keep in mind that these plants are valued economically because of their chemical constituents. These constituents are believed to be elicited and synthesized in response to specific stresses. It is necessary, therefore, to identify these critical environmental factors for maximizing the concentration of the desired constituent(s). It will be equally important to identify possible (i) genotype x environment (ii) genotype x plant growth stage or (iii) genotype x environment x plant growth stage interactions that are relevant to synthesis of the desired chemical constituent(s).
Recent developments in molecular biology, genomics and functional genomics as well as high-throughput analytical chemical technologies have greatly influenced the direction and course of research on medicinal plants. Understanding of biosynthetic processes is critical for producing these high value molecules in large amounts and at low cost in microbes. This route will not benefit only human health but also plant resource conservation. Biotechnological platforms such as metabolic engineering for effective plant and heterologous production in microbial systems are of great-importance to ensure that the supply of bioactive natural products is sustainable and environmentally friendly and not resource exhausting. A prerequisite for these solutions is the understanding of biosynthetic pathways of the specialized metabolites; in particular the cloning and identification of enzymes and the regulatory factors. Recent advances in microbial biotechnology have significantly supported the expression of partial plant metabolic pathway circuitries, allowing the biosynthesis of high value end-products in heterologous hosts.
Designing a crop cultivar for a specific environment is the central challenge for the plant breeder; it reflects the reality that genotype on its own is not generally sufficient to support a biotechnology driven crop improvement programme. Rather, a combination of one or more of the ‘omics platforms ’ is required to deliver reliable information. Genomic research has great potential of speeding up breeding processes and several applications for crop improvement through marker assisted selection and gene pyramiding. In case of several crops, linkage maps have been generated using simple sequence repeat(SSR), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), nucleotide binding site or expressed sequence tag (EST) markers with the aim to genetically localize favourable traits by quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis. One of the emerging strategies in reverse genetics is Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes (TILLING) and its numerous applications in functional genomics. Here, random point mutations are generated by chemical mutagenesis and high-throughput screening for SNPs in the target gene isolate mutants with loss-of-function or gain-of-function phenotypes. The application of molecular approaches with medicinal plants would also benefit from the development of cell, tissue and organ in vitro growth systems. These could prove useful for large scale biotechnological production of therapeutically important phytochemicals.
Taken together, this book has been compiled to bring together comprehensive information and literature on medicinally and commercially important plants in respect of biosystematics, reproductive biology, genetic amelioration, cultivation, conservation, chemistry, pharmacology, trade, value addition and future prospects for wider readership. The ten plants are: Aegle marmelos, Aloe vera, Saussurea costus, Aconitum heterophyllum, Asparagus racemosus, Berberis aristata, Bergenia ciliata, Crocus sativus, Picrorhiza kurroa and Piper longum. It is our hope that a very wide readership interests will benefit from our effort.
Preface
The enviable rich plant biodiversity of India and its extensive long term use for centuries by the traditional medicinal systems provide a unique opportunity for creating new knowledge and products that are relevant to human health, nutrition and food. A large number of plants have become a part of cultural traditions of India. Also, a large body of impressive knowledge on some of the important plants of medicinal and nutraceutical value has accumulated during last several decades. Recent advances in modern biology, pharmacology, chemistry and other cognate disciplines have opened up unprecedented new opportunities of research for developing new products and for adding refinement and value to existing products and prescriptions. In fact, we are at the threshold of a revolution in healthcare aptly termed as ‘Green Medicine ’. In green medicine, the concept of traditional medicine will be integrated with modern medicine. The knowledge of disease biology, genomics, microbiome and plant based phytopharmaceuticals/nutraceuticals will redraw and redefine the contours of expectations of, how to comprehensively promote wellness, vigour and health of the large human and livestock population. It is ironic that in spite of such a rich scientific and traditional knowledge base on medicinal and nutraceutical plants globally (particularly in US and China), the quality of research problems being addressed in India on indigenous and endemic plant species leaves so much to be desired.
The primary motivation for writing this book was to collate scientific information on some of the most privileged plants used in India and to give a critical analysis of next-generation research problems worth pursuing. We have identified a set of ten plants which have great potential for safeguarding and promoting wellness and human health and possess promising potential of product development for commerce. Recent global regulatory developments, exemplified by US-FDA creating a road-map for marketing approval of plant-based botanical drugs and nutritional supplements, has opened up global market for Indian medicinal plants. Over a hundred Indian plants that have been used in traditional systems of medicine for centuries have now been recognized and included in the global pharmacopoeias (US, EU and Japan). In 2015, the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI) has created a separate category for phytopharmaceutical drugs, and over 100 plants have been approved by Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) for inclusion as nutritional products.
Currently, an overwhelming proportion of plant material used for compounding herbal drugs and nutraceuticals is collected from the wild. The enormous amount of plant material extracted from the limited plant populations available in natural stands has become a cause of justifiable alarm. The unscrupulous plunder of plant populations growing wild in nature is pushing increasing number of relevant species to the endangered category and many to the verge of extinction. Also, unethical practices like adulteration and storage of medicinal plants under unacceptable conditions are rampant. All this is happening, when the consumer is becoming increasingly quality conscious and is demanding traceability of source material used for formulations and adherence to good practices for the entire chain of manufacturing processes for herbal drugs and plant-based nutraceuticals. Clearly, solution to this problem lies in replacing the ‘collection from the wild ’ paradigm to ‘production by cultivation ’. An essential prerequisite for meeting this goal is a well thought out research agenda which goes far beyond standardizing agronomic practices for increasing productivity of the material currently at hand. This task will require addressing the entire chain of interventions relevant to upgrading the genetic productivity potential of the targeted plant species and mounting planned research on all aspects that are crucial for improving the productivity potential of chosen plant species and biochemical and pharmacological characteristics for which the targeted plant is valued.
One of the important prerequisites for enhanced productivity would be to work out the best agronomic management protocols. Standard agronomic practices will need to be worked out for higher biomassproductivity but ensuring that the content of pharmaceutically important entities is maintained at high levels.
Genetic up-gradation is the real and sustainable route to productivity improvement. Genetic variability is a pivotal requirement for genetic enhancement programmes. The genetic variation in plants is due to their sexual system, which affects the genetic structure and dynamics of populations within the species. Thorough understanding of differences in floral and reproductive features is critical to creating and managing genetic variation in plants. Understanding of the genetic system is fundamental for undertaking any genetic improvement programme for higher yield and quality attributes. Variation forms the bed-rock for plant breeders to create new varieties of commerce. Breeding systems provide the transport to carry genetic variation from generation to generation. Evolutionary and ecological studies also require a comprehensive account on phenology. Further, germplasm is an important requirement, firstly as a starting point for successful introduction of a new plant to commerce and later for upgrading the plant for productivity and quality attributes. For genetic improvement approach to succeed and deliver the expected results will require systematic work for gaining insight into a number of biological characteristics of the targeted plant species. The information collated in this book indicates that, for most plant species dealt with, critical details of key biological aspects and parameters are not available. This deficiency must be addressed on urgent basis by developing a well thought out and dynamic research agenda.
The biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites is tightly regulated by spatial and temporal cues that control the levels of targeted secondary metabolites in plant tissues. It is also important to understand as to how environmental factors influence production of phytomedicinally relevant compounds. This is of key significance for optimizing field growth conditions, crop geometry and agronomic inputs for maximal recovery of phytomedicinal chemicals. Information on growth and development pattern (plant phenology) and compatible environmental requirements such as season, rainfall, humidity, photoperiod etc., would be a prerequisite for successful cultivation. Information about diseases/pests prevalent in natural habits would be of immense value for avoiding or restricting damage from diseases and pests when these plants are brought under cultivation. It is also important to keep in mind that these plants are valued economically because of their chemical constituents. These constituents are believed to be elicited and synthesized in response to specific stresses. It is necessary, therefore, to identify these critical environmental factors for maximizing the concentration of the desired constituent(s). It will be equally important to identify possible (i) genotype x environment (ii) genotype x plant growth stage or (iii) genotype x environment x plant growth stage interactions that are relevant to synthesis of the desired chemical constituent(s).
Recent developments in molecular biology, genomics and functional genomics as well as high-throughput analytical chemical technologies have greatly influenced the direction and course of research on medicinal plants. Understanding of biosynthetic processes is critical for producing these high value molecules in large amounts and at low cost in microbes. This route will not benefit only human health but also plant resource conservation. Biotechnological platforms such as metabolic engineering for effective plant and heterologous production in microbial systems are of great-importance to ensure that the supply of bioactive natural products is sustainable and environmentally friendly and not resource exhausting. A prerequisite for these solutions is the understanding of biosynthetic pathways of the specialized metabolites; in particular the cloning and identification of enzymes and the regulatory factors. Recent advances in microbial biotechnology have significantly supported the expression of partial plant metabolic pathway circuitries, allowing the biosynthesis of high value end-products in heterologous hosts.
Designing a crop cultivar for a specific environment is the central challenge for the plant breeder; it reflects the reality that genotype on its own is not generally sufficient to support a biotechnology driven crop improvement programme. Rather, a combination of one or more of the ‘omics platforms ’ is required to deliver reliable information. Genomic research has great potential of speeding up breeding processes and several applications for crop improvement through marker assisted selection and gene pyramiding. In case of several crops, linkage maps have been generated using simple sequence repeat(SSR), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), nucleotide binding site or expressed sequence tag (EST) markers with the aim to genetically localize favourable traits by quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis. One of the emerging strategies in reverse genetics is Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes (TILLING) and its numerous applications in functional genomics. Here, random point mutations are generated by chemical mutagenesis and high-throughput screening for SNPs in the target gene isolate mutants with loss-of-function or gain-of-function phenotypes. The application of molecular approaches with medicinal plants would also benefit from the development of cell, tissue and organ in vitro growth systems. These could prove useful for large scale biotechnological production of therapeutically important phytochemicals.
Taken together, this book has been compiled to bring together comprehensive information and literature on medicinally and commercially important plants in respect of biosystematics, reproductive biology, genetic amelioration, cultivation, conservation, chemistry, pharmacology, trade, value addition and future prospects for wider readership. The ten plants are: Aegle marmelos, Aloe vera, Saussurea costus, Aconitum heterophyllum, Asparagus racemosus, Berberis aristata, Bergenia ciliata, Crocus sativus, Picrorhiza kurroa and Piper longum. It is our hope that a very wide readership interests will benefit from our effort.