Preface Horticulture, in recent years, has emerged as an important and viable diversification option in agriculture for effective land use, nutritional security and employment opportunities; and has also transformed the subsistence farming into a high value commercial enterprise.India has a wide variety of climate and soil on which a large number of Horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and spices are grown. Horticultural crops cover 20.7 million hectare of area, which is nearly 11.25% of total cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output. Presently, our country is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetable crops in the world (surpassed only by China), accounting for about 12% of fruits and 13.25% of vegetables of the World’s production. The country produces 41% of world mango, 27% of banana, 6% of citrus, 3.2% of apples, 2.5% of grapes, 6.94% of pineapples, 10% of papaya, 19% cashewnut, 57% of arecanut, 36% of green peas, 12% onion, 8% potato, 13% tomato, 26% egg plant, 8% cabbage, 30% cauliflower and 1.5% mushrooms. The area under flowers has also been increased tremendously. In the last three decades or so, there has been significant increase in the allocation of budgetary support for horticulture R&D resulting in sound research and development infrastructure to meet the growing needs. Production of horticultural crops have increased manifold during the recent years and destined to double in another five years but there has not been matching progress in the development and adoption of post harvest technology resulting in huge post harvest losses. Hence, strategies are needed to ensure these aspects apart from minimizing post harvest losses and promotion of processing and value addition. The rapid globalization, market liberalization, urbanization and increased consumer awareness have created newer challenges to be managed by post harvest technologists. New opportunities have emerged with the opening of the trade, therefore, issues related to sanitary and phyto-sanitarymeasures would need to be appropriately addressed. A three-pronged strategy is needed to reduce post-harvest losses— (i) compress supply chain by linking producers and markets; (ii) promote processing of food commodities in production catchments to add value before beingmarketed; and (iii) develop small-scale processing refrigerated chambers or cold storages using conventional and non-conventional sources. And these would require multi- disciplinary and multi-stakeholder research for agri-commodities, especially post- harvesting Engineering, Horticulture, Dairy, Livestock and Fish. More focus would be given to primary and secondary levels of value-addition and processing.

I. INTRODUCTION Horticultural crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area. Horticulture crops cover over 23.4 million hectares of area, which is approximately 12.7% of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output (NHB, 2013). India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 77.7 million metric tonnes of fruit and 159.5m M tonnes of vegetables (NHB, 2013). Besides, about 5.66 million tonnes of loose flowers, spices, mushroom and aromatic plants are also produced. The country produces 41% of world mangoes, 23% banana, 24% cashew nut, 36% green peas, 10% onion and 30% cauliflower and accounts for 12% of world fruit and 13.25% of vegetable production (NHB, 2013). Owing to wide diversity of agro climatic conditions, almost all types of temperate (apple, peach, plum, apricot, cherries and nuts), subtropical (mango, guava, papaya, etc), tropical (banana, pineapple etc), arid fruit (ber and aonla), plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and arecanut) and diverse variety of vegetables are grown in India. The export of fresh fruit and vegetables from India in 2006-07 was estimated at 9.84 Lakh tonnes valued at Rs 2411.70 crores. Mango, grapes, apple, onion, potato, green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies were the major items of export. Similarly, India exported 5.97 Lakh tonnes of processed foods comprising of mango pulp, juices, concentrates, dried and processed vegetables, pickle and chutney, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages worth Rs 2818.1 crores (APEDA, 2012) (Table 1 to 3).

I. INTRODUCTION The fruits and vegetables we eat and flowers and ornamentals we enjoy are biological entities. They breath, produce heat, perspire, are easily damaged, get diseases and finally die. These carry on processes characteristics of all living things before or after harvest to perform the metabolic activities: to maintain cellular organization to transport metabolites around the tissue and to maintain membrane permeability.

1. MATURITY INDICES Maturity indices (right time of harvesting) are quality factors that give clues as to when a product should be harvested to allow marketing flexibility and ensure the attainment of minimum acceptable quality to the user. It also refers to the set of criteria used to determine the stage of maturity for harvesting the horticultural crops. Commodities harvested either pre-mature or too late are more susceptible to postharvest physiological disorders, diseases and have poor shelf life than harvested at right stage of maturity. The pickers/ handlers are trained in methods of identifying produce that is ready for harvest. However, optimum harvesting stages depends upon type of produce and their final use. Horticultural crops may be harvested at two main maturity levels i.e., physiological maturity and commercial or horticultural maturity. Therefore, the proper stage/maturity indices for harvesting of all horticultural crops should be identified for their implementation during harvesting. Horticultural maturity in relation to developmental stages of the plants is depicted in Fig 3.1.

1. INTRODUCTION Harvesting is the process of gathering the crops from the fields at maturity. The harvesting of a commodity means the end of the growing season for a particular crop. Harvesting is the most labour-intensive activity of the growing season. Harvesting in general includes an immediate post-harvest handling, the actions taken immediately after removing the crop are pre-cooling, sorting, cleaning, packaging and up to the point of on-farm processing or shipping to the wholesaler or consumer. Harvest timing is a critical decision that balances the likely weather conditions with the degree of crop maturity. Weather conditions such as frost, rain and unseasonably warm or cold periods can affect yield and quality. These conditions can be avoided by harvesting the commodities earlier than the harvest date, but this may result in poor yield and quality. On the other hand, delayed harvesting also results in a better yield, but increases the risk of weather problems. Thus, proper harvesting timings of horticultural commodities often play an important role. Assessment of harvesting time is a critical time for growers of fruit and vegetables to decide the accurate period of crop harvesting. Fresh produce is normally ready for harvest when it has developed to the ideal condition for consumption and the condition is usually referred to as harvest maturity. Harvest maturity thus refers to the time when the “fruit” is ready to harvest and the time required to reach market. The harvesting should be done earlier than its ideal maturity for proper marketing. Most growers decide harvesting time for different commodities by looking and sampling. Judgments are based on colour, size and shape (Sight); texture, hardness or softness (Touch); odour/aroma (Smell); sweetness, sourness, bitterness (Taste) etc. Experience is the best guide for this kind of assessment. Harvest maturity can readily be observed in some fruit crops but it can be more difficult in case of some fruits like avocados remain unripe off the tree after maturity.

1. INTRODUCTION Grading and packing of fruits ensure the safe transportation from the farm to the storage and consumer centre, while reducing the damage during transportation. The properly graded fruits should be packed in such a way that they do not collide with each other during transportation. Throughout the entire handling system, packaging can be both an aid and hindrance to obtaining maximum storage life and quality. Before the fruit is packed in a suitable container/package it is graded according to the standard grades accepted in the market. Packaging is one of the important components after grading during the handling of fruits. Packaging is meant to protect the commodity by immobilizing and cushioning it, but temperature management can be made more difficult if packing material block ventilation holes. Packing material can act as vapour barriers and helps in maintaining higher relative humidity within the package. Packaging material such as trays, cups, wraps, liners and pads may be added to help immobilize the produce. A wide variety of containers such as wooden boxes, plastic crates, corrugated fiberboard boxes are important package used in the transportation and distribution of fruits in most of the developing countries.

I. POST HARVEST DISEASES A. Post-Harvest Diseases of Fruits

1. FRUIT CROPS 1.1 Physiological Disorders A wide variety of physiological disorders are found in apple fruit, but the susceptibility varies with variety, pre-harvest factors and post harvest conditions. Disorders can be considered in three categories: Disorders that develop only on the tree: Most important is watercore in which intercellular air spaces in the core and cortical tissues become filled with liquid, Presence of watercore in fruit at harvest creates problems in certain varieties such as ‘Delicious’ because fruit with moderate or severe watercore can develop breakdown during storage. Disorders that develop on the tree and during storage: Bitter pit is a disorder characterized by development of discrete pitting of the cortical flesh. Rapid cooling, CA storage and application of postharvest calcium drenches may be able to reduce its occurrence. Disorders that develop during storage: Senescent breakdown disorders, chilling disorders and disorders associated with inappropriate atmospheres during storage are common disorders. The most common disorders associated with temperature and atmospheres are superficial scald, soft scald, low temperature breakdown, brown core, internal browning, low O2 injury, and high CO2 injury.

1. INTRODUCTION Quality, i.e. the degree of excellence or superiority, is a combination of attributes, properties, or characteristics that each commodity value in of human food. The relative importance of each quality component depends upon the commodity and its intended use (e.g. fresh or processed) and varies among producers, handlers, and consumers. Appearance of quality, firmness and shelf-life are important from the point of view of wholesale and retail marketers. Consumers judge quality of fresh fruits and vegetables on the basis of appearance and firmness, flavour (eating) quality of the product. Consumers are also concerned about the nutritional quality and safety of fresh fruit and vegetables.

1. TERMS RELATED WITH BROWNING

Food is composed of three main constituents viz; carbohydrates, proteins and fats and their derivatives. In addition to these constituents, inorganic mineral elements and diverse organic compounds like vitamins, pigments, flavouring compounds, enzymes, and acids are also present. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins are organic in nature. The percentage of water is large in certain foods. The variation in structure, texture, colour, flavour and nutritive value is because of the varying proportions and arrangements of these constituents. Carbohydrates are important in foods as a major source of energy, to impart crucial textural properties, and as dietary fiber which influences physiological processes. Digestible carbohydrates, which are converted into monosaccharides, which are absorbed, provide metabolic energy. Carbohydrates account for more than 70% of the caloric value of the human diet. It is recommended that all persons should limit calories from fat to not more than 30% and that most of the carbohydrate calories should come from starch. Non-digestible polysaccharides (all other than starch) comprise the major portion of dietary fiber.

1. INTRODUCTION Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Twenty different types of amino acids occur naturally in proteins. Proteins differ from each other according to the type, number and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide backbone. Proteins are the important constituents of foods for a number of reasons. They are a major source of energy, as well as containing essential amino-acids, like lysine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and valine which are essential to human health, but which the body cannot synthesize. Proteins are also the major structural components of many natural foods, often determining their overall texture, e.g., tenderness of meat or fish products. Isolated proteins are often used in foods as ingredients because of their unique functional properties, i.e., their ability to provide desirable appearance, texture or stability. Proteins are complex organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Most proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus and also play an important role in food preparation. The final quality of many food products are influenced by how the proteins are treated while food is being prepared.

Lipids are a class of compounds that are defined by how they are isolated, rather than by their composition. Lipids are molecules that can be extracted from plants and animals by low polarity solvents such as ether, chloroform, or even acetone. They are not appreciably soluble in water. Fats and the fatty acids from which they are made belong to this group as do oils, waxes and steroids. Hydrolyzable lipids are those that contain a functional group that will react with water. The functional group is usually an ester and the list of compounds includes neutral fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Non- hydrolyzable lipids lack such functional groups and include steroids and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. A, D, E, and K). Fats and oils are composed of triacylglycerols. These are compounds prepared by the union of glycerol (1,2, 3-tri- hydroxypropane) and 3 fatty acids to form a triester. Fats and oils belong to a group of biological substances called lipids. Lipids are biological chemicals that do not dissolve in water. They serve a variety of functions in organisms, such as regulatory messengers (hormones), structural components of membranes, and as energy storehouses. Fats and oils generally function in the latter capacity. Fats differ from oils only in that they are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid. Fats and oils share a common molecular structure. The fats and oils contain three ester functional groups. Fats and oils are esters of the tri- alcohol, glycerol (or glycerine). Therefore, fats and oils are commonly called triglycerides, although a more accurate name is triacylglycerols. Triglyceride molecules contain mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, with only six oxygen atoms per molecule. This means that fats and oils are highly reduced (un-oxidized). Oils are particularly common in seeds, where the stored energy helps seedlings during germination, until they can exploit solar energy through photosynthesis. Fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 36, bonded in an unbranched chain. Most of the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds. If all of these bonds are single bonds, the fatty acid is said to be saturated, because the number of atoms attached to each carbon atom is the maximum of four. If some of the bonds between carbon atoms are double bonds, then the fatty acid is unsaturated. When there is only one double bond, it is usually between the 9th and 10th carbon atom in the chain, where the carbon atom attached to the oxygen atoms is counted as the first carbon atom. If there is a second double bond, it usually occurs between the 12th and 13th carbon atoms, while a third is usually between the 15th and 16th.

1. INTRODUCTION India is a vast country having a geographical area of 328 million hectares with 15 distinct agro-climatic zones. Fruits and vegetables are one of the most important and fast growing sub-sectors as they form an indispensable part of healthy diet. It holds a unique position for growing a wide range of vegetables in its diverse agro-climatic conditions. World production of vegetables amounts to 486 million tons, while that of fruits is 392 million tons. India produces 159.5m MT tons of vegetables from an area of 9.07 million hectare annually (NHB, 2013). Productivity of vegetables in India presently is 16.7 tons per hectare. India produces 36 % green peas and 10% onion of world’s production. Onion, potatoes and green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies also have good export potential. Being rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and natural antioxidants most vegetables are classified as the protective foods. However, owing to the presence of high moisture content and mostly being non acidic, the vegetables are highly perishable and needs to be handled properly and immediately after harvest. Processing of vegetables into different value added products is one of the most effective alternatives to reduce post harvest losses. Vegetables are highly beneficial for the maintenance of health and disease prevention. An intake of about 280 grams of vegetables per day per person has been considered essential. Vegetable unlike cereals deteriorated quickly when stored for long periods because of the relatively high moisture contents. Huge amounts of losses take place between harvesting and consumption. Various causes are attributed to the deterioration process and it becomes essential to adopt integrated, low cost system of post harvest technology right from the pre-harvest stage.

1. INTRODUCTION Food is constantly being rated for its quality either consciously or subconsciously by all people. Consumers choose food on the basis of its quality and their individual likes or dislikes. The attractiveness of food is clearly a quality which is important both to the manufacturer and to the consumer. When consumers make a selection they basically look for food that is attractive in terms of colour, flavour and texture apart from other psychological and social factors, which they may associate with food. The nutritional quality, shelf-life/keeping quality and cost factor are other criteria which may affect their selection. The distinctive and attractive colour of food is not only pleasing but is also an indicator of good quality and freshness. The senses of taste and odour help us in detecting and appreciating different flavours and deciding on whether we like the food. The feel and texture of food entering the mouth should be firm, juicy, crisp and are extremely important characteristics that dictate the acceptance of a food. Today’s consumers are discerning, demanding, and more knowledgeable about food. They expect safe products having good value and high sensory quality. Therefore, knowing consumer’s preferences and perceptions of the sensory characteristics of food and beverage products is vital to food manufacturers. Without appropriate evaluation, there is a high risk of market failure.

1. EXPERIMENT 1 : INDUSTRIAL USES OF IMPORTANT CHEMICALS