Buy Now and Pay in EMI's

SOIL MICROBIOLOGY

R. Thamizh Vendan, D. Balachandar
  • Country of Origin:

  • Imprint:

    NIPA

  • eISBN:

    9789390512430

  • Binding:

    EBook

  • Number Of Pages:

    298

  • Language:

    English

Individual Price: 3,600.00 INR 3,240.00 INR + Tax

Add to cart Contact for Institutional Price
 

Soil Microbiology deals with fundamental aspects of microorganisms, their relationships to agriculture with an emphasis on improving the soil fertility and crop yields, biodegradation of crop residues, and combating pests and diseases. A fascinating and relatively interesting area of this Microbiology is the study of how these tiny life forms communicate and interact with each other in the soil environment. Soil microorganisms play essential roles in the nutrient cycling that are fundamental to life on the planet. The book covers the syllabus of various Universities, both undergraduate and postgraduate and the information presented in the book will fulfill the need. The text is clear and simple, which is explained through various diagrams. It is believed that the publication is needful not only to the students but also to the academic professionals.

0 Start Pages

Preface Soil Microbiology deals with fundamental aspects of microorganisms, their relationships to agriculture with an emphasis on improving the soil fertility and crop yields, biodegradation of crop residues, and combating pests and diseases. A fascinating and relatively interesting area of this Microbiology is the study of how these tiny life forms communicate and interact with each other in the soil environment. Soil microorganisms play essential roles in the nutrient cycling that are fundamental to life on the planet. The authors have tried their best to see the syllabus of various Universities, both undergraduate and postgraduate and they feel the information presented in the book will fulfill the need. The text is clear and simple, which is explained through various diagrams. It is believed that the publication is needful not only to the students but also to the academic professionals.The authors are much thankful to their colleagues and students, who have been helpful in many ways in the preparation of the book.

 
1 Introduction to Soil Microbiology

Soil represents a medium or substrate in which numerous microorganisms live and bring about a great variety of processes that are responsible for the continuation of the cycle of life in nature. The numerous living forms which spend their life in the soil, ranging from submicroscopic forms to the lower animal forms. With the growing recognition of the numerous processes carried out by the microorganisms in the soil there gradually emerged a branch of microbiology, which came to known as soil microbiology. It is a branch of soil science concerned with soil-inhabiting microorganisms and their functions and activities. Since soil microbiology concerns soil microorganisms and their processes it is closely associated with soil biochemistry. Medical bacteriologists are interested in the soil as a medium for the growth and survival of disease-producing organisms. Agricultural chemists are also interested in the soil processes that result from the activities of microorganisms. General bacteriologists, zoologists, botanists are interested in a certain special group of organisms found in the soil. Recently, soil microbiology has expanded to include the study of the role of soil microorganisms in genetic engineering, in the biological control of pests and diseases, the degradation of pollutants, production and destruction of radioactive gases and its transfer. Thus microbial participation in several important processes emphasizes that soil microbiology has become a global science.

1 - 10 (10 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
2 History and Development of Soil Microbiology

History of Soil Microbiology There is enough evidence in the literature to believe that microorganisms were the earliest of the living things that existed on this planet. Man depends on crop plants for his existence and crop plants in turn depend on soil and soil microorganisms for their nutrition. Scientists from the beginning studied the microorganisms from water, air, soil, etc. and recognized the role of microorganisms in natural processes and realized the importance of soil microorganisms in the growth and development of plants.Thus, microorganisms have been playing a significant role long before they were discovered by man. Today, the soil is considered to be the main source of scavenging the organic wastes through microbial action and is also a rich storehouse for industrial microflora of great economic importance. Unlike soil science whose origin can be traced back to Roman and Aryan times, soil microbiology emerges as a distinct branch of soil science during the first half of the 19th century. Some of the notable contributions made by several scientists in the field of soil microbiology are highlighted in the following paragraphs. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1673) discovered and described microorganisms through his own made first simple microscope with a magnification of 200 to 300 times. He observed minute, moving objects which he called “animalcules” (small animals) which are now known as protozoa, fungi, and bacteria. He for the first time made the authentic drawings of microorganisms (protozoa, bacteria, fungi).

11 - 20 (10 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
3 Distribution and Importance of Microorganisms

Soil is a bioorganic - mineral complex of the loose surface layer of the earth’s crust. Soil microbiology is the science that deals with the millions of microscopic forms of life found in the soil. It is stated that one hectare - foot (one hectare to a depth of 30cm) contains 2 to 10 metric tons of living microorganisms. Soil microorganisms are in a constant struggle for existence and are believed to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Without microorganisms, the soil would be an inactive geological mass incapable of supporting plant life and without plant life, animal life would not be possible. This soil population consists mainly of bacteria, fungi, actinobacteria, algae, and protozoa. The soil ecosystem includes these microbial groups as well as the inorganic and organic constituents of a given site. The collections of cells represented in the community are considered as distinct populations. All the inhabitants of the particular locality make up the community. Types of Microorganisms in Soil Living organisms both plants and animals, constitute an important component of soil. The pioneering investigations of several early microbiologists showed for the first time that the soil was not an inert static material but a medium pulsating with life. The soil is now believed to be a dynamic or rather a living system, containing a dynamic population of organisms/microorganisms. Cultivated soil has relatively more population of microorganisms than the fallow land, and the soils rich in organic matter contain much more population than sandy and eroded soils. Microbes in the soil are important to us in maintaining soil fertility and productivity, cycling of nutrient elements in the biosphere, and sources of industrial products such as enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, organic acids, etc. At the same time certain soil microbes are the causal agents of human and plant diseases.

21 - 34 (14 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
4 Factors Affecting Microbial Activities in Soil

Several environmental conditions affect the density and composition of the microflora and frequently alter their activities in soil. Primary factors include soil moisture, aeration, temperature, pH, organic matter and inorganic fertilizers. Lesser variables are the secondary factors, which include crop rotation, season, soil depth, cultivation practices etc. I. Primary Factors Soil moisture Soil moisture is one of the important factors influencing the microbial population. Water is the major component of protoplasm; an adequate supply must be available for vegetative development of organisms. But, when it becomes excessive, proliferation is suppressed due to limitation in gaseous exchange and lowers the availability of O2 supply creating an anaerobic environment. Most of the organisms prefer a moisture percentage between 20 and 60 per cent. Many bacteria and fungi can adjust themselves to different moisture conditions. Under dry conditions, the bacteria may form spores that can resist the drought conditions. The fungi may sporulate or form chlamydospores to tide over adverse conditions. The protozoans also may form cysts and can survive under dry conditions. Actinobacteria are the chief group of organisms that prefer dry conditions. It is believed that the concentration of nutrients is diluted and also the aeration is very much limited at moisture and hence only the anaerobic and microaerophilic organisms can develop better.

35 - 38 (4 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
5 Factors Affecting Distribution and Population of Soil Microbes

Soil microorganisms (Flora & Fauna) are just like higher plants depends entirely on soil for their nutrition, growth and activity. The major soil factors which influence the microbial population, distribution and their activity in the soil

39 - 44 (6 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
6 Microbial Biomass in Soil Fertility

Soil microbial biomass is an important parameter linking the plants to soil. It comprises about 2-3% of the total organic carbon in the soil and recognized as an important source of nutrients to plants. It is also a dynamic component of the soil associated with several functional properties of the terrestrial ecosystem. It represents the fraction of the soil responsible for the energy and nutrient cycling and the regulation of organic matter transformation. Microbial biomass is a small but labile and living component of soil organic matter that is involved in most bio-geo-chemical processes in the terrestrial ecosystem. It interacts with crop productivity by regulating nutrient availability as a source; determining soil carbon storage- sink; and contributing to the atmospheric CO2 from respiration. Thus it is the main agent that controls the flow of carbon and cycling of nutrient elements. There is a close relationship between soil microbial biomass, decomposition rate, and nitrogen mineralization. It is also positively correlated with grain yield in organic farming and also contributes to soil structure and stabilization. Thus, there is the immense importance of microbial biomass in soil fertility as well as in agriculture.

45 - 50 (6 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
7 Soil Enzymes and Their Roles

Soil fertility depends on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. Among the biological properties, soil enzymes are used as an index of soil fertility. Soil enzymes respond to changes in soil management faster in comparison to other soil variables, and also catalyze the reactions necessary for the life processes of microorganisms in soils. The biochemical reactions are brought about by the catalytic action of enzymes. Soil enzymes include amylase, phosphatase, urease, cellulase, protease, glycosidase, and arylsulfatase. They play a role in organic material decomposition, the transformation of organic matter, nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, detoxification of pesticides, xenobiotics, etc., and thus regulate the ecosystem. Depending on their location, enzymes can be extracellular or intracellular. Intracellular enzymes are found in the cell’s cytoplasm or bound to the cell walls of living and metabolically active cells. Extracellular enzymes released into the soil and are “permanently” immobilized on clay and humic colloids via ionic interactions, covalent bonds, hydrogen bonding, entrapment, and other mechanisms. There are two kinds of soil enzymes.

51 - 58 (8 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
8 Bio Geochemical Cycling

All organisms require the six elements CHNOPS in sizable quantities, and that these minerals may occur in different forms. Depending on whether the local environment is aerobic or anaerobic, the exact chemical form of any of these elements may change quickly and drastically. Example: : If the soil becomes waterlogged and anaerobic, sulfate will be converted into hydrogen sulfide and nitrate into nitrogen gas or ammonia (via anaerobic respiration). As the water recedes and the soil becomes aerobic again, the ammonia is oxidized back to nitrate in stages. All of this (and many other processes) occur largely because of the activities of soil microbes. Without these microbes, life as we know it would not occur because necessary elements would remain tied up in unusable chemical forms and gradually be removed by sedimentation. To maintain the level of these components it is essential that they undergo a regular process of recycling. Different microorganisms bring about this process of recycling through various transformations. Carbon Cycle The most important element in the biological realm and substance that serve as the cornerstone of the cell structure is carbon. It constituents about 40-50% of all living organisms, yet the ultimate source is the CO2 that exists in a perennially short supply, only 0.03% of the earth’s atmosphere, which undergoes a cyclic change from an oxidized to reduced state. The concentration of carbon in living matter (18%) is almost 100 times greater than its concentration in the earth (0.19%). Hence, living things extract carbon from their non-living environment. For life to continue, this carbon must be recycled. Carbon exists in the nonliving environment as carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere and dissolved in water (forming HCO3") carbonate rocks (limestone and coral = CaCO3) deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas derived from once-living things dead organic matter, e.g., humus in the soil. Carbon enters the biotic world through the action of autotrophs: primarily photoautotrophs, like plants and algae, that use the energy of light to convert carbon dioxide to organic matter through photosynthesis and to a small extent, chemoautotrophs - bacteria and Archaeans that do the same but use the energy derived from the oxidation of molecules in their substrate.

59 - 62 (4 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
9 Decomposition of Organic Matter and Humus Formation

Soil Organic Matter Soil organic matter plays an important role in the maintenance and improvement of soil properties. It is a dynamic material and is one of the major sources of nutrient elements for plants. Soil organic matter is derived to a large extent from residues and remains of the plants together with the small quantities of animal remains excreta, and microbial tissues. Soil organic matter is composed of three major components i.e. plant residues, animal remains and dead remains of microorganisms. Soil organic matter comprises residues of plants and animals and these compounds occur in soil in close combination with inorganic substances. Animals and plant residues are made up of complex carbohydrates, simple sugars, starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, gums, mucilage, proteins fats, oils, waxes, resins, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, lignin, phenols, tannins, hydrocarbons, alkaloids, pigments, etc. The organic matter subjected to microbial decay in the soil comes from several sources like plant remains, forest litter, incorporation of plant tissues, animal tissues, and excretory products. The chemistry of organic matter is very complex, and investigations of the transformations and the responsible organisms have therefore been extremely interesting. The organic constituents of the plants are commonly divided into six categories.

63 - 78 (16 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
10 Nitrogen Cycle

Soil microorganisms are the most important agents in the cycling or transformation of various elements (N, P, K, S, Fe etc.) in the biosphere; where the essential elements undergo cyclic alterations between the inorganic state as free elements in nature and the combined state in living organisms. Life on earth is dependent on the cycling of nutrient elements from their elemental states to inorganic compounds to organic compounds and back into their elemental states. The microbes through the process of biochemical reactions convert / breakdown complex organic compounds into simple inorganic compounds and finally into their constituent elements. This process is known as “Mineralization”. Mineralization of organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and iron by soil microorganisms makes these elements available for reuse by plants. In the following paragraphs the cycling or transformations of some of the important elements are discussed.

79 - 86 (8 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
11 Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Fixation of elemental nitrogen in the atmosphere by the microorganisms through a reductive process into ammonia is called biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Molecular nitrogen (N2) is the major component (approximately 80%) of the earth’s atmosphere. The element nitrogen is an essential part of many of the chemical compounds, such as proteins and nucleic acids, which are the basis of all life forms. However, N2 cannot be used directly by biological systems to build the chemicals required for growth and reproduction. Before its incorporation into a living system, N2 must first be combined with the element hydrogen. This process of reduction of N2 commonly referred to as nitrogen fixation (N-fixation). N2is transformed into reactive N via lightning discharge (5 teragrams (Tg) N / year; 1 Tg equals 1012 g) and by biological N fixation (100 -140 Tg N /year ). Conversion of dinitrogen to ammonia in the industrial process requires temperatures of 400 - 500o C and high pressures (Haber-Bosch process). Biological nitrogen fixation is much more important as it contributes to more than 70 % of the input in to the world’s soil and water nitrogen. It has been estimated that 100 to 175 million tones of nitrogen are fixed annually by the process of biological nitrogen fixation. The process of N2 fixation is mediated by the enzyme, called nitrogenase (which reduces N2 to ammonia). The overall reaction is as follows.

87 - 110 (24 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
12 Phosphorus Cycle and Transformations

Phosphorus is only second to nitrogen as an inorganic nutrient required by both plants and microorganisms. It stimulates growth of young plants, giving them a good and vigorous start. Phosphorus management and nutrition has both economic and environmental implications. Phosphate constitutes nearly 0.1% of the earth’s crust. They occur in soil in inorganic and organic forms. The organic phosphorus containing compounds are derived from plants and microorganisms and are composed of nucleic acids, phospholipids, lecithin, phytin and related compounds. In soil, 15-85 % of the total P is organic and soils rich in organic matter contain abundant organic P. The inorganic forms are derived from parent rocks or through fertilizers application and manuring with bone meal. They are soluble in water when present as phosphates of Na, K, Ca, Mg etc. Phosphorus exists mainly as apatites, with the basic formula M10 (PO4) 6 X2. Commonly the mineral (M) is Ca, less often Al or Fe. The anion (X) is either F-, Cl-, OH- or CO2- 3. Diverse combinations of M and X results in 200 forms of P. It is a major constituent of nucleic acids in all living systems essential in the accumulation and release of energy during cellular metabolism. This element is added to the soil in the form of chemical fertilizers, or in the form of organic phosphates present in plant and animal residues. In cultivated soils it is present in abundance (i.e. 1100 kg/ha), but most of which is not available to plants, only 15 % of total soil phosphorus is in available form. Both inorganic and organic phosphates exist in soil and occupy a critical position both in plant growth and in the biology of soil.

111 - 118 (8 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
13 Sulphur Cycle

Microbial transformations of sulfur (S) are even more complex than those of nitrogen because of the large number of oxidation states of S and the fact that several transformations of S also occur abiotically. Although a number of oxidation states of S are possible, only three are significant in nature, 2 (sulfhydryl, R–SH, and sulfide, HS-), 0 (elemental sulfur, S0), and 6 (sulfate, SO4 2-). The bulk of S Earth’s S is in sediments and rocks in the form of sulfate minerals, primarily gypsum (CaSO4) and sulfide minerals (pyrite, FeS2), but the oceans constitute the most significant reservoir of SO4 2- in the biosphere. A significant amount of S, in particular sulfur dioxide (SO2), enters the S cycle from human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels. Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfate Reduction A major volatile S gas is hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Hydrogen sulfide is produced from bacterial sulfate reduction or is emitted from sulfide springs and volcanoes. Although H2S is volatile, different forms exist depending on pH: H2S predominates below pH 7 and the nonvolatile HS- and S2- predominate above pH 7. Collectively,H2S, HS, and S2 are referred to as “sulfide.” Sulfate-reducing bacteria are a large and highly diverse group and are widespread in nature. However, in anoxic habitats such as freshwater sediments and many soils, sulfate reduction is SO4 2- limited. Moreover, because organic electron donors (or H2, which is a product of the fermentation of organic compounds) are needed to support sulfate reduction, it only occurs where significant amounts of organic material are present.

119 - 126 (8 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
14 Potassium Transformations in Soil

Potassium (K) is among the most important essential macronutrients for plant growth. About 98% of the potassium in the earth’s crust exists in insoluble forms as rocks and silicate minerals, resulting in very low concentrations of soluble potassium in the soil for plant growth and development. Potassium is never incorporated in any organic compound and even in the plant system it remains as K+ ion. It does not form any gas that could be lost to the atmosphere. It does not cause eutrophication. When left in the ecosystem as such, it is not at all toxic.Potassium activates enzymes, maintains cell turgor, enhances photosynthesis, reduces respiration, helps in transport of sugars and starches, and is essential for protein synthesis. In addition to plant metabolism, potassium improves crop quality because it helps in grain filling and kernel weight, strengthens straw, increases disease resistance and helps the plant better to withstand stress. Potassium in Soils Soils usually contain potassium in larger amounts than any other nutrients. Total K content in soil is 30,000- 50,000 kg/ha in top layer of the soil. Nearly 98 % of K bound in the mineral form and 2 % is in soil solution. Generally, potassium in soils exist in four forms (often called fractions), their availability to crop roots is considerably different.

127 - 130 (4 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
15 Zinc and Silica Transformations

Zinc is found in earth’s crust to the tune of 0.008%. However about 50% of Indian soils exhibit deficiency of zinc with a content much below the critical level of 1.5 ppm. Soil contains both available and unavailable form of zinc. Water soluble, exchangeable, organically complexed and armorphous iron oxide bound forms are considered available zinc and crystalline iron oxide bound and residual zinc are considered as unavailable. The available fraction constitutes around 8% of the total zinc which is too low for utilization by crops in zinc deficient soils. Zinc is required by crops in microquantities for its growth. The use of high analysis fertilizer due to cultivation of high yielding varieties, enhanced cropping intensity and the decline in the use of organic manures result in the deficiency of trace elements particularly zinc. With the liberal application of nitrogen the demand for zinc increases producing deficiency symptoms. The critical limit of zinc in dry matter for different crops and levels less than 20 ppm suggests the probability of zinc deficiency and less than 15 ppm indicate sure deficiency. Zinc is a limiting factor in crop production and application of ZnSO4 is preferred because of its water soluble nature. The zinc sulphate, when applied soil, gets transformed into different forms like Zn (OH), zinc carbonate in calcium rich alkali soils ; zinc phosphate in near neutral to alkali soils of high phosphorus application; and zinc sulphide under reduced conditions.

131 - 134 (4 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
16 Bioconversion of Agricultural Wastes

Bioconversion refers to the recycling and reprocessing of organic waste materials using the system of biological decomposition or biodegradation into value added products. Composting is one way of conversion of organic waste into manures. It is defined as a method of solid waste management whereby the organic component of the solid waste stream is biologically decomposed under controlled conditions to a state in which it can be handled, stored or applied to the land without adversely affecting the environment. Composting provides a partial solution to an issue of great concern in many communities. All around the world, landfills are filling up, garbage incineration is becoming increasingly unpopular, and other waste disposal options are becoming ever harder to find. Composting provides a way not only of reducing the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of, but also of converting it into a product that is useful for agriculture. Composting reduces waste, makes us less dependent on landfills, and decreases greenhouse gas emissions. Composting recycles essential nutrients back into the soil and promotes a prolific soil ecosystem.

135 - 144 (10 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
17 Biodegradation of Agricultural Residues and Chemicals

Pesticides are the chemical substances that kill pests and herbicides are the chemicals that kill weeds. In the context of soil, pests are fungi, bacteria, insects, worms, and nematodes etc. that cause damage to field crops. Thus, in broad sense pesticides are insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, herbicides and nematicides that are used to control or inhibit plant diseases and insect pests. Although wide-scale application of pesticides and herbicides is an essential part of augmenting crop yields; excessive use of these chemicals leads to the microbial imbalance, environmental pollution and health hazards. An ideal pesticide should have the ability to destroy target pest quickly and should be able to degrade nontoxic substances as quickly as possible. The ultimate “sink” of the pesticides applied in agriculture is soil. Soil being the storehouse of multitudes of microbes, in quantity and quality, receives the chemicals in various forms and acts as a scavenger of harmful substances. The efficiency and the competence to handle the chemicals vary with the soil and its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.

145 - 154 (10 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
18 Rhizosphere and Its Importance

Rhizosphere The term Rhizosphere was introduced by the German scientist, Hiltner in 1904. It is region of the soil, which is subjected to the influence of plant roots. It is the unique environment under the influence of plant roots. The roots of plants are not only involved in the uptake of mineral nutrients and water for plant growth, but they also release a wide range of organic compounds in the surrounding soil.

155 - 168 (14 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
19 Spermosphere and Phyllosphere

The spermosphere represents a short-lived, rapidly changing, and microbiologically dynamic zone of soil surrounding a germinating seed. It is analogous to the rhizosphere, being established largely by the carbon compounds released into the soil once the seed begins to hydrate. These seed exudations drive the microbial activities that take place in the spermosphere, many of which can have long-lasting impacts on plant growth and development as well as on plant health.

169 - 176 (8 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
20 Endophytic Microorganisms

Microbes that live inside plant tissues without causing disease are termed as endophytes. Endophytes have been found in all parts of plant viz., seeds, roots, stems, leaves, fruits etc. Within these organs, there is evidence of endophytes living in apoplastic intercellular space within parenchyma tissues and xylem vessel apoplast. Endophytic bacteria have been isolated from both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, ranging from woody tree species to herbaceous crop plants. Further, a single plant may be a host for several different bacterial species. They are consistently present in the root, stem, leaf, fruit and tuber tissues of a wide range of agricultural, horticultural and forest species. All plants in nature harbor a diverse community of endophytic bacteria which can positively affect host plant growth. The potential of endophytic bacteria to fix nitrogen, promote plant growth and suppress plant diseases has renewed interest in such associations. It is advantageous to have the endophytic plant growth promoting organisms safely inside the plant, which could supply substantial amounts of nitrogen and other nutrients, growth hormones and other beneficial effects to the crop plants without the interference of the rhizosphere soil environment. Furthermore, plant growth promotion is often greater when it is induced by endophytes rather than by rhizosphere bacteria.

177 - 180 (4 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
21 Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are root-colonizing bacteria that form symbiotic relationships with many plants. The name comes from the Greek rhiza, meaning root. Though parasitic varieties of rhizobacteria exist, the term usually refers to bacteria that form a relationship beneficial for both parties (mutualism). They are an important group of microorganisms used in biofertilizer. Biofertilization accounts for about 65% of the nitrogen supply to crops worldwide. The term PGPRs was first used by W. Kloepper in the late 1970s and has become commonly used in scientific literatures. PGPRs have different relationships with different species of host plants. The two major classes of relationships are rhizospheric and endophytic. Rhizospheric relationships consist of the PGPRs that colonize the surface of the root, or superficial intercellular spaces of the host plant, often forming root nodules. Endophytic relationships involve the PGPRs residing and growing within the host plant in the apoplastic space.Some common examples of PGPR genera exhibiting plant growth promoting activity are: Pseudomonas, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Burkholdaria, Enterobacter, Rhizobium, Erwinia, Mycobacterium, Mesorhizobium, Flavobacterium, etc.An ideal PGPR should possess high rhizosphere competence, enhance plant growth capabilities, have a broad spectrum of action, be safe for the environment, be compatible with other rhizobacteria, and be tolerant to heat, UV radiation, and oxidizing agent.

181 - 184 (4 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
22 Soil Microbes and Their Interactions

Soil is the largest terrestrial ecosystem where a wide variety of relationships exists between different types of soil organisms. The associations existing between different soil microorganisms, whether of a symbiotic or antagonistic nature, influence the activities of microorganisms in the soil. Microflora composition of any habitat is governed by the biological equilibrium created by the associations and interactions of all individuals found in the community. In soil, many microorganisms live in close proximity and interact among them-selves in a different ways. Some of the interactions or associations are mutually beneficial, or mutually detrimental or neutral.

185 - 192 (8 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
23 Industrially Important Microorganisms

Industrial microbiology is an important area of applied microbiology. In a broader sense, industrial microbiology is concerned with all aspects of business that relate to microbiology. It refers to the use of microorganisms in commercial enterprise. Cheap raw materials are converted to valuable products through the metabolism of microbes. Microbes for this purpose could be exploited in different ways. Various commercial products of economic value made by microbes are :

193 - 198 (6 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
24 Silage Production

Silage is preserved pasture. Fresh forage crops such as maize, grasses, legumes, wheat and lucerne can be preserved by ensiling. Silage is the green material produced by controlled fermentation of the green fodder crop retaining the high moisture content, which contain 20-40% dry matter. Silage can be prepared from plants having thick stems and are generally not very suitable for hay making like sorghum, maize. Weeds can also be utilized along with main fodder crops for silage making. Silage making kills majority of weed seeds. It is highly palatable. The organic acids produced in the silage are similar to those normally produced in the digestive tract of the ruminants and therefore are used in the same manner.

199 - 202 (4 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
25 Biofertilizers and Their Types

Introduction Biofertilizers are microbial preparations containing living or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing and cellulose decomposing microorganisms intended for seed or soil application and designed to improve soil fertility and plant growth by increasing the number and biological activity of beneficial microorganisms in the soil. The objects behind the application of biofertilizers /microbial inoculants to seed, soil is to increase the number and biological / metabolic activity of useful microorganisms that accelerate certain microbial processes to augment the extent of availability of nutrients in the available forms which can be easily assimilated by plants. The need for the use of biofertilizers has arisen primarily due to two reasons i.e. though chemical fertilizers increase soil fertility, crop productivity and production, but increased / intensive use of chemical fertilizers has caused serious concern of soil texture, soil fertility and other environmental problems.Use of biofertilizers is both economical as well as environment friendly. Therefore, an integrated approach of applying both chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers is the best way of integrated nutrient supply in agriculture. Biofertilizers, thus include i) Symbiotic nitrogen fixers- Rhizobium sp. ii) Non-symbiotic, free living nitrogen fixers- Azotobacter, Azospirillum etc. iii) Blue Green Algae (BGA) inoculants- Azolla-Anabaena, iv) Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM)- Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Penicillium, Aspergillus etc. v) Mycorrhiza vi) Cellulolytic microorganisms

203 - 216 (14 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
26 Mycorrhiza

Mycorrhizal symbiosis is the most prevalent and important mutualistic association in plant kingdom. ‘Mycorrhiza’- the word means fungus - root, this association was reported by A.B.Frank in the year 1885. Nearly 95% of plant species form this mycorrhizal association. This serves as critical linkage between plant roots and soil and characterized by the movement of plant produced carbon to fungus and fungal acquired nutrients to plants. Through its hyphae this fungus absorbs the available P from soil and transports directly to root cortex. Mycorrhizal associations vary widely in structure and function. There are seven types of mycorrhizae (Table 1). These are endo (arbuscular), ecto, ectendo, arbutoid, monotropoid, ericoid, and orchidaceous mycorrhizae. Among them, endomycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae are the most abundant and widespread

217 - 228 (12 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
27 Biocontrol Agents

For many soil borne diseases, effective and economic control methods are not available. Several soil borne pathogens have developed resistance to many fungicides. The beneficial microbes are also affected by fungicides. Many fungicides pose health hazards by polluting food and water and cause direct toxicity of heavy metals and carcinogenic risk. In the context of growing worldwide awareness of environmental pollution and development of fungicide resistant strains of pathogens, biological method of suppression of disease causing organisms have been recognized as the safest approach for plant disease management. Biological control of plant diseases is the suppression of populations of plant pathogens by living organisms. Amongst beneficial microorganisms, isolates can be selected which are highly effective against pathogens and can be multiplied on artificial media. Application of such selected and mass produced antagonists in high densities once or several times during a growing season is called “augmentative biological control”.

229 - 238 (10 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
28 Biopesticides

Chemical pesticides though extremely effective in controlling pest population suffer from disadvantages. They have a broad toxic range and potentially toxic to non target organisms. Other constraints that have emerged with the use of chemical pesticides such as development of resistance and resurgence in insects, residual toxicity, secondary outbreak of minor insect pests, etc., In this juncture, the biopesticides have proven to be effective tool in managing the devastating insect pests of various crops. The biopesticides are types of pesticides derived from natural materials such as microorganisms, plants, animals and certain minerals. They are living organisms or their products or byproducts, which can be used for the management of pests that are injurious to crop plants. Biopesticides have a vital role in crop protection, although most commonly in combination with other tools including chemical pesticides as part of integrated pest management (IPM). Microorganisms help to regulate the abundance of many pests or potential pests without any cost to society. Microbes can be increased artificially and thereby achieve faster, higher and more consistent control of the target pests that will occur naturally. Insect pathogens that are transmissible in nature from one host to another offer an important bonus effect that chemical insecticides do not have. A pathogen will kill pests exposed and many continue killing them by natural transmission from one individual host to another through subsequent host generation. Biopesticides generally have several advantages compared to conventional pesticides. While chemical pesticides are responsible for extensive pollution of the environment, a serious health hazard due to the presence of their residues in food and development of resistance in targeted insect pest populations, biopesticides, in contrast, are inherently less toxic to humans and the environment, do not leave harmful residues, and are usually more specific to target pests. The agents employed as biopesticides, include parasites, predetors and disease causing fungi, bacteria and viruses, which are the natural enemies of pests. Utilization of naturally occurring parasites, predators and pathogens for pest control is a classical biological control. These bio agents can be conserved, preserved and multiplied under laboratory condition for field release. Once these bio-agents are introduced in the field to build their population considerably, they are capable of bringing down the targeted pest population below economic threshold level (ETL).

239 - 246 (8 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
29 Mass Production of Bioinoculants

Mass Production of Bacterial Inoculants Strain Selection and Improvement In biofertilizer technology, strain selection occupies the foremost criteria, so as to explore its biological potentialities for the beneficiary crop. The selected strain used in biofertilizer production must be efficient to grow fast besides retain desirable potentialities of biological activities, which should be present in desired high numbers and must be stable. The strain must be improved periodically so as to sustain the productivity.

247 - 260 (14 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
30 Quality Control of Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers are one of the important components of organic farming and sustainable agriculture. Awareness among farmers is increasing on the biological fertilizers. But, the success of biofertilizer inoculation depends on the quality of the inoculant used. Because farmers are unable to judge the quality of the inoculants at the time of purchase or even at use. The inoculant producers are negligent to institute quality control programmes. Unfortunately much of the inoculant produced in the world today is relatively of poor quality. In such situation maintaining high quality inoculant products depend on the internal implementation of effective quality control systems by manufacturer. A major goal of a quality standard is to control the quality of inoculant to be used in any country.

261 - 266 (6 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
31 Method of Application of Biofertilizers

Bacterial biofertilizers are supplied as carrier based inoculants. Peat or lignite is used as carrier material. Carrier based bacterial inoculants are applied by the following methods. Seed treatment or seed inoculation. Seedling root dip and Main field application Seed Treatment One packet of the inoculant (200 g) 7is mixed with 200 ml of rice kanji to make a slurry. The seeds required for an acre are mixed in the slurry so as to have a uniform coating of the inoculant over the seeds and then shade dried for 30 minutes. The shade dried seeds should be sown within 24 hours. One packet of the inoculant (200 g) is sufficient to treat 10 kg of seeds.

267 - 270 (4 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
32 Biofuel Production

At this moment, the majority of energy is obtained from fossil fuels and requires switching over to alternative energy sources is the need of the hour. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable energy source and also have seriously negative impacts on the environment. The use of fossil fuels cause excessive global climate change because emissions of greenhouse pollutants and the formation of compounds COx, NOx, SOx, CxHy, ash and other organic compounds that are released into the atmosphere. The increase in greenhouse gas emission will result in global warming, climate change, environmental degradation and health problems. Biofuel, any fuel that is derived from biomass - that is, plant or algae material or animal waste. Since such feedstock material can be replenished readily, biofuel is considered to be a source of renewable energy, unlike fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas.

271 - 281 (11 Pages)
INR113.00 INR102.00 + Tax
 
9cjbsk

Browse Subject

Payment Methods