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FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANT PATHOLOGY

Sanjeev Kumar
  • Country of Origin:

  • Imprint:

    NIPA

  • eISBN:

    9789390591596

  • Binding:

    EBook

  • Number Of Pages:

    200

  • Language:

    English

Individual Price: 1,995.00 INR 1,795.50 INR + Tax

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The book has been written as Text Book for Undergraduate level covering all the syllabus of course entitled Fundamentals of Plant Pathology. The main features of this volume are as follows:

The book has been carefully designed enabling the children to grasp maximum with minimum efforts. The content is illustrated point wise which not only develops the interest of the children but also makes the understanding process become simple.

This book will serve immensely for teachers and students in the field of plant pathology. The language is simple and easily understandable. It covers in its 34 chapters, the major part of syllabi offered by Indian universities especially in plant pathology. The glossary of technical terms has been presented for ready reference.

0 Start Pages

Preface The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi an apex body developed new course curricula for UG and PG students under the umbrella of Fifth Dean’s Committee keeping in view the requirement and maintain the pace with industrial needs to increase the farmers income as per programme of Prime Minister of India. The undergraduate syllabus has been completely revised and has rendered existing textbooks obsolete or incomplete for students. This gap in knowledge give me an excellent opportunity to present updated textbooks to students as per their syllabus requirements. The purpose of writing this text books is to provide the basic and emerging facts whereby the students may be introduced to the scientific foundation of this basic course Fundamentals of Plant Pathology. The book aims to develop in the young minds the passion for learning and analysing the environment, to probe into the problems and think of the possible solution. While preparing the book, I have taken utmost care to present facts according to the level of our students and graded our content accordingly. I do not claim originality in the preparation of this book and has taken help from a large number of books, journals, periodicals, bulletins and E-resources. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to our past and present pioneers in the field of Plant Pathology whose work has been freely used in the prepare of this book. I am also indebted to my Parent in laws, wife Dr. (Mrs) Archana Rani, children Saumya and Adyan for bearing with me during the preparation of this book .

 
1 Introduction, Importance of Plant Diseases, Scope and Objectives of Plant Pathology

Of the 7 billion global population, about 800 million do not have enough food to eat and majority of the them live in developing countries. By 2050, the world population is estimated to reach 9 billion. Plant pests and diseases are responsible for losses of 20 to 40% of global food production. Due to increasing global trade and a changing climate, plant diseases pose a major threat to food security today than ever before. Agriculture will have to cope with weather fluctuations that can affect the survival, distribution and multiplication of plant pathogens apart from shift in pathogenic microbial flora. Emergence of new races of pathogen potentially threaten the production of food. To cite an example, migration of 13 -A2 clonal lineage of Phytophthora infestans from Europe, during 2013, devastating tomato and potato in India. Plant pathogens also impact on environment sustainability, forest health, recreational horticulture, human and animal health. The science of plant pathology can play a much needed role in alleviating hunger and malnutrition through development of affordable solutions for devastating plant diseases leading to increase in food production. It hold promise to ensure quality produce by containing microbial invasions and toxin contamination of food crops. Plant Pathologists have an important role to play in meeting the food security need of the nation by developing technologies for ensuring proper crop health. There is an urgent need to produce more food per unit area for feeding rapidly increasing human population. We need to act ahead of pathogens in our efforts to ensure normal crop yields. Cutting edge biotechnologies such as CRISPR gene editing systems and RNA interference are being exploited to rapidly developed crop varieties having resistance to specific pathogen races. Crop protection has come a long way from predominantly chemical based approaches to more environment friendly IDM technologies including green chemistry. There is a need to develop bio-intensive modules for management of diseases. Decision support system need to be developed for important diseases for their timely, more efficiently management. There is need to adopt information technology at a larger scale to facilitate quick dissemination of new crop protection solutions among the farmers and other stakeholders.

1 - 6 (6 Pages)
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2 History of Plant Pathology

History in general reveals chronological account of important events, contribution of persons who significantly influenced the thinking of their era and the interpretations of the observed facts or phenomenon over the period of time. The progress in plant pathology leading to the major land mark in mycology, plant bacteriology and plant virology will be discussed in chronological order for easy and better understanding.

7 - 14 (8 Pages)
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3 Terms and Concepts in Plant Pathology

There is a very impressive and extensive number of terms and definitions used in plant pathology, many of which you will not come in contact with. With interest, study and practice, terms and names will come to light and become familiar to you. When you start out, don’t worry too much about the terms; but also don’t be afraid of them. The more exposure you have to the subject the more comfortable you will be when dealing with your peers and the public. With these you are going to be exposed to some terms and definitions that will be a good ice breaker and prepares you for the information to follow

15 - 18 (4 Pages)
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4 Pathogenesis

Definition Pathogenesis can be defined as the chain of events leading to the development of a disease. In another words it is also called disease cycle. It tells us about

19 - 24 (6 Pages)
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5 Factors Affecting Disease Development Disease Triangle and Tetrahedron

The Disease Triangle and Disease Pyramid The disease triangle is one of the first concepts encountered by students in an introductory plant pathology course and often may be encountered in higher level classes. The interactions of the three component namely (1) susceptible host (2) virulent pathogen and (3) favorable environments have been visualized as a triangle, generally referred to as the “DISEASE TRAINGLE”. Each side of the traingle represent one of the three components. The length of each side is proportional to the sum total of the characteristic of each component that favor disease. For example, the more virulent and abundant the pathogen, the longer the pathogen side would be and the greater the potential amount of disease. Similarly if the plant are resistant, the widely spaced or wrong age, the amount of disease would be small or zero. Where as if the plants are susceptible, at a susceptible stage of growth, or densely planted, the host side would be long and the potential amount of disease could be great. Also, the more favourable the environmental conditions that help the pathogen, or that reduce host resistance, that longer the envirnmental side would be and greater the potential amount of diseases. If the three component of the disease traingle could be quantified, the area of the traingle would represent the amount of disease in a plant or in plant population. If any of three component in zero, these can be no disease.

25 - 30 (6 Pages)
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6 Classification of Plant Diseases

There are number of diseases which attacks crop plants. Therefore It is mandatory to classify plant disease into more manageable and more specific group based on several criteria for easy and better understanding. Let us discuss one by one. 1. On the basis of type of infection On the basis of type of infection disease can be classified into two types

31 - 34 (4 Pages)
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7 Important Plant Pathogenic Organisms

Plant diseases are classified on the basis of type of pathogenic or non-pathogenic causes of the disease. The classification is based on the plant pathogenic organisms as follows. A. Parasites The diseases are incited by parasites under a set of suitable environment. Association of definite pathogen is essential with each disease. They include both biotic and mesobiotic agents. Biotic agents: They are also called as animate causes. They are living organisms.

35 - 36 (2 Pages)
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8 Different Groups Fungi, Bacteria, Fastidious Vascular Bacteria, Phytoplasmas, Spiroplasmas, Viruses, Viroids, Algae, Protozoa, Phanerogamic Parasites and Nematodes with Examples of Diseases Caused by Them

Fungi Definition Fungi are eukaryotic, spore bearing, achlorophyllus, heterotrophic and thallophytic plants with varied forms and habitats, representing heterothallic or homothallic types of sexuality with characteristic sexual and /or asexual means of reproduction without tissue differentiation.

37 - 48 (12 Pages)
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9 Diseases and Symptoms Due to Abiotic Causes

Definition Plant disease in which no pathogens or parasitic is associated with the cause is known as Non-parasitic disease. They are also called as noninfectious or physiological disorders. General Characteristics Occurs in the absence of pathogen and therefore, cannot be cultured or transmitted. Caused by the lack or excess of something that supports life from diseased to healthy plants. Effect plant in all stages of their lives, such as seeds, seedlings, mature plants or fruits. Symptoms may range from slight to severe & affected plants may even die. These disease cause damage in field, in storage or at the market.

49 - 54 (6 Pages)
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10 Fungi: General Characters, Definition of Fungus, Somatic Structures, Types of Fungal Thalli, Fungal Tissues, Modifications of Thallus & Reproduction

a) Definition Fungus is Latin word meaning ‘mushroom’ Alexopoulus and Mims 1979 defined fungus as eukaryotic, achlorophyllous organism generally produced by sexual or asexual method and whose filamentous branched somatic structure is typically covered by cell wall.

55 - 62 (8 Pages)
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11 Symptoms of Plant Diseases

Introduction Plant pathogens induce diverse reactions in the body of their hosts. This result in creation of abnormalities which become visible on the plants. A visible or otherwise detectable expression of abnormal physiology, development, or behaviour in a plant resulting from disease is called symptoms. Normally, a distinction is made between symptoms and signs A symptom of disease is expressed as a reaction of the host to a causal agent, whereas, a sign is evidence of disease other than that expressed by the host. Signs are usually the structures of the pathogen. A disease is first noticed by the presence of symptoms and /or signs, and recognition of specific type of symptoms or sign aid in the eventual diagnosis of the disease.

63 - 68 (6 Pages)
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12 Nomenclature, Binomial System of Nomenclature, Rules of Nomenclature, Classification of Fungi Key to Divisions, Sub-divisions, Orders and Classes

Taxonomy Taxonomy is the science that deals with the identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms. Systematics It is scientific study of organisms with the ultimate object of characterizing and arranging them in an orderly manner. Classification Classification is the ordering of organisms into groups and systems, based on their morphological, phylogenetic and physiological relationships. Nomenclature It is the system of assigning names to the taxonomic groups or organism according to international rules.

69 - 82 (14 Pages)
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13 Bacteria and Mollicutes General Morphological Characters, Basic Methods of Classification and Reproduction

Bacteria Definition Bacteria belong to prokaryota which encompasses organisms with a primitive type of nucleus lacking a clearly defined membrane. The bacteria are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to 1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0µ.

83 - 90 (8 Pages)
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14 Viruses: Nature, Structure, Replication and Transmission

Definition of Virus According to Luria and Darnell (1968), Viruses are entities whose genome is a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, which reproduce inside living cells and use their synthetic machinery to direct the synthesis of specialized particles- the virions, which contain the viral genome and transfer it to other cells. Nature of Virus The physical and chemical nature of viruses eluded scientists until the 1930s. Stanley (1935) announced crystallization of Tobacco mosaic viruses, a feat for which he got a Nobel Prize. Stanley thought the crystals to be pure proteins. It was the pioneer work of F.C. Bawden and N.W. Pirie of England which showed that the viruses consists of proetein and nucleic acid. The chemical nature of viruses was settled. It consisted of nucleic acid and protein. The viruses chemically were proved to be nucleic acid. The mature particle of a plant virus is generally called virion and the whole infective particle is called as Nuclcocapsid.

91 - 100 (10 Pages)
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15 Phanerogamic Parasites

The parasitic flowering plants are also important pathogens. There are few seed plants, which are parasitic on living plants and are called parasitic higher plants or Phanerogamic parasites. These parasitic higher plants attack some valuable crops and trees causing considerable losses. They produce flowers and seeds and belongs to several widely separated botanical families they differ to each other on their dependency on host plants. These parasites have haustoria as absorbing organ, which sent deep into the vascular bundle of the host to draw water and nutrients. More than 2500 species of higher plants are known to live parasitically on other plants.

101 - 104 (4 Pages)
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16 Plant Parasitic Nematodes General Morphology, Reproduction, Classification, Symptoms and Nature of Damage

Definition Neamtode may be defined as triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented, pseudocoelomate individual invertebrate, with 4 main hypodermal chords, a triradiate oesophagus, circum oesophageal nerve ring, and lacking specialized organs for respiration and circulation.They have tubular gonads which open separately in females but join alimentary canal in males to open through a cloacal aperture.

105 - 112 (8 Pages)
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17 Dispersal of Pathogens

Definition To make a healthy plant sick or diseased, primary requirement of a pathogen is spread of its inoculums from the source of survival to the susceptible host. The spread of a plant pathogen within the common area in which it is already established is called dispersal or dissemination. Moving the inoculum only a few inches and transporting it for hundreds of kilometers both represent its dispersal. Nevertheless, the pathogen dispersal is not necessarily only for spread of diseases but also for continuity of the life cycle and development of the pathogen. A detail knowledge of pathogen dispersal is necessary to find out effective control measures for diseases because the possibilities of preventing dispersal and thereby breaking the infection chain always exist.

113 - 118 (6 Pages)
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18 Survival of Plant Pathogens

Definition The availability of a plant pathogens in given area depends upon its ability to survive not only during its parasitic relations with hosts but also during those seasons in which the hosts are not growing. The latter part of continued existence of plant pathogens in which they remain in dormant condition to overcome the unfavourable condition of non availability of hosts is called “survival”. Pathogens may survive between crop seasons by means of specialized resting structures , by functioning as saprophyte in or on the soil or in diseased plant debris, or by living in some intimate association with living plants or other organism.

119 - 122 (4 Pages)
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19 Types of Parasitism and Variability in Plant Pathogens

A. Types of parasitism An organism that lives within or upon another living organism from which it derives nourishment and in which it may cause various degrees of injury is called as parasite. The removal of food by a parasite from its host is called parasitism. Among the parasite one can distinguish different degree of parasitism

123 - 128 (6 Pages)
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20 Pathogenesis Role of Enzymes, Toxins and Growth Regulators

Pathogenesis: Role of enzymes The chain of metabolic events that bring about the disease is pathogenesis. It involves the virulence of the pathogen, susceptibility of the plant and impact of the environment. It is called disease triangle. Penetration infection, invasion, colonization and reproduction are the events that occur during pathogenesis, and lead to development of disease. The establishment of pathogen in the host and consequent development of disease involves a chemical interaction between the host and the pathogen. The pathogen employs offensive chemical weapons to break host barriers, which the host resists with all its might. Parasitism and disease resistance run parallel and are inseparable, A biochemical ‘tug of war’ ensures between the host and the pathogen, in which one tries to outwit the other. Enzyme, toxins and growth regulators are the important chemical weapons of the pathogen. Viruses, however, because of their basic nature, do not produce any of these chemicals. Pathogens produce these substances either in normal course of their activities (constitutively) or when, they grow on certain substrates such as their host plants (Inducible). Plant pathogenic enzymes disintegrate the structural components of host cells, breakdown inert food materials in the cell, or affect components of the protoplast directly and interfare with its functioning system. Toxins seem to act directly on protoplast component and interfare with the permeability of its membrane and with its function. Growth regulators exert a hormonal effect on the cells and either increase or decrease their ability to divide and enlarge. Polysaccharides seem to play a role only in the vascular diseases, in which they passively interfere with the translocation of water in the plants or they may also be toxic.

129 - 136 (8 Pages)
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21 Defense Mechanism in Plants

Introduction Resistance to disease in a host plants is a condition in which the plant conquer the pathogen’s attack and thus suffers small or no injury. Resistant hosts prevent or slow the development and reproduction of the majority of pathogen propagules that they come into contact with. Different plants defend themselves in different ways. Each kind of plant, probably, employs different defense mechanism against each of the pathogens that attack it. The defense barriers erected by plants are a co-ordinated system of molecular, cellular and tissue-based responses to pathogen attack.

137 - 146 (10 Pages)
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22 Epidemiology Factors Affecting Disease Development

Epidemiology Vanderplank has called epidemiology the science of disease in population. Epidemiology puts its emphasis on population phenomena. The important populations are those of the host, on the one hand, and of the pathogen, on the other. But further, epidemiology is concerned with host-pathogen interactions that lead to disease and crop losses. These interactions are often environmentally dependent. So epidemiology deals with effects of the biotic and abiotic environments. Finally , man has had important effects on hosts, pathogens and the environments, effect that today are increasing in magnitude and scale of importance. Epidemiology therefore also deals with the effects of man on disease and sometimes with the effects of plant disease on mankind. All of this can be symbolized by the disease tetrahedron.

147 - 152 (6 Pages)
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23 Forecasting, Prognosis, Modeling and Expert System in Plant Pathology

Disease Forecasting Definition Forecasting involves all the activities in ascertaining and notifying the grower of community that conditions are sufficiently favourable for certain diseases, that application of control measures will result in economic gain or on the other hand, and just as important that the amount expected is unlikely to be enough to justify the expenditure of time, energy and money for control. The above statement made explicit distinction between positive forecast and negative forecast and both have value for growers as well as society in general. Positive forecast: Employs need based chemical sprays, provides adequate protection to crop and reduces damage to environment. Negative forecast: Avoids unnecessary chemical sprays, no risk to the crop health and no disruption of environment.

153 - 160 (8 Pages)
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24 Principles of Plant Disease Control

The techniques used in disease management mainly based on two principles: Prevention or prophylaxis and cure. The first principle prevention includes disease management tactics applied before infection i.e., the plant is protected from disease. It includes: avoidance, exclusion, eradication, resistant & protection. Second principle curative action: functions with any measure applied after the plant is infected i.e., the plant is treated for the disease. It includes therapy.

161 - 166 (6 Pages)
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25 Physical Management

Defintion Management of plant diseases using physical means is called physical management. Also called physical therapy or thermotherapy. It is mostly curative in nature.

167 - 170 (4 Pages)
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26 Cultural Management

Introduction Cultural management is defined as manipulation /or adjustment of crop production techniques for management of plant diseases. Cultural practices have been as old as possibly agriculture itself. In early stage of agriculture development, the growers through their experiences and observations had known that repeated cultivation of a particular crop species or variety on a piece of land often resulted in crop sickness. As a matter of fact, in the present day agriculture, cultural practices are being considered as essential backup methods for management of plant diseases. Adequate adjustment in crop production techniques can modify the environment in such a manner that it becomes unfavorable for the pathogen and pathogenesis. Based on this the disease control affected by cultural practices are preventive, these practices aim at reducing the activity and density of inoculum. It offer the opportunity to alter the environment, the condition of the host, behavior of the causal agent to achieve economic management of disease.

171 - 180 (10 Pages)
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26 Cultural Management

Introduction Cultural management is defined as manipulation /or adjustment of crop production techniques for management of plant diseases. Cultural practices have been as old as possibly agriculture itself. In early stage of agriculture development, the growers through their experiences and observations had known that repeated cultivation of a particular crop species or variety on a piece of land often resulted in crop sickness. As a matter of fact, in the present day agriculture, cultural practices are being considered as essential backup methods for management of plant diseases. Adequate adjustment in crop production techniques can modify the environment in such a manner that it becomes unfavorable for the pathogen and pathogenesis. Based on this the disease control affected by cultural practices are preventive, these practices aim at reducing the activity and density of inoculum. It offer the opportunity to alter the environment, the condition of the host, behavior of the causal agent to achieve economic management of disease.

171 - 180 (10 Pages)
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27 Plant Quarantine

1. Biosecurity Biosecurity is strategic and integrated approach encompasses policy frameworks to analyze and manage risks for food safety, animal life and health and plant life and health including environment.

181 - 188 (8 Pages)
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28 Biological Management

Definition Garret (1970) defined biological control as any condition under which or practice whereby survival or activity of a pathogen is reduced through the agency of any other living organism (except man) with the result that there is a reduction in the incidence of the disease caused by that pathogen. Baker and Cook (1974) stated that the biological control is the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant stage, by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the environment, host or antagonists, or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists. Biocontrol can be simply defined as the application of living organism to control diseases.

189 - 196 (8 Pages)
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29 Host Plant Resistance

Definition Those characters that enable a plant to avoid tolerate or recover from attacks of pathogens under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species.

197 - 204 (8 Pages)
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30 Chemical Management

Introduction and Concept The word fungicide has originated from two Latin words: viz. fungus and caedo (to kill). So literally, a fungicide would be any physical or chemical agency which kills a fungus. However, the word is restricted to chemicals. Hence, the word fungicide should mean a chemical capable of killing fungi. However, there are a number of compounds which do not kill the fungus. They simply inhibit growth or spore germination temporarily. If the fungus is freed from such substances, it would revive. Such a chemical is called a fungistat. and the phenomenon as fungistasis. Some other chemicals, like certain phenantherene derivatives and bordeaux mixture may inhibit spore production without affecting vegetative growth. These are called antisporulants. There are other groups of chemicals which exhibit very poor or no antifungal activity in vitro condition but provide protection to the plants either by inhibiting the penetration of host surface by the fungi or by inducing the host defense system. The former type of chemicals are termed as antipenetrants and later as antipathic agents. Even though fungistats, antisporulants, antipenentrants, and antipathic agents do not kill fungi, they are included under the broad term fungicide because by common usage, the word fungicide has been defined as chemical substance which has ability to prevent damage caused by fungi to plants and their products. Fungicide which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called protectants. On the other hand, fungicide which is capable of eradicating a fungus after it has caused infection, and thereby curing the plant, is called therapeutant.

205 - 220 (16 Pages)
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31 Formulations of Fungicides and Antibiotics

Fungicide Formulation Fungicide formulation is the process by which the fungicide is put into a form which can be easily produced, stored, transported and applied by practical methods in order to achieve a safe, convenient economic and effective method of disease control.The mixture of active ingredient and inert (inactive) ingredients is called a fungicide formulation.

221 - 224 (4 Pages)
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32 Applications of Fungicides for Disease Management

Proper selection of a fungicide and its application at the correct dose and the proper time are highly essential for the management of plant diseases. The basic requirement of an application method is that it delivers the fungicide to the site where the active compound will prevent the fungus damaging the plant. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed

225 - 228 (4 Pages)
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33 Integrated Disease Management

Definitions Selection, integration and implementation of disease control means on predicted economic, ecological, and sociological consequences. A comprehensive approach to disease control that uses combined means to reduce the status of diseases to tolerable levels while maintaining a quality environment. The optimization of disease control in an economically and ecologically sound manner, accomplished by the coordinated use of multiple tactics to assure stable crop production and to maintain disease loss below the economic injury level while minimizing risks to man and the environment. A sustainable approach to manage diseases by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks.

229 - 234 (6 Pages)
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34 End Pages

 
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