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ENGENDERING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT DIMENSIONS & STRATEGIES

Binoo P Bonny, K P Sudheer, Smitha S.
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    NIPA

  • eISBN:

    9789390591824

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    EBook

  • Language:

    English

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The book is an attempt to comprehend and compile the history, present status and future trends of gender roles in agriculture. The book comprises of three divisions viz., Gender in agriculture development (Part I), Gender in allied sectors of agriculture (Part II) and Data, Tools and approaches in gender analysis (Part III), that explicates the prevalent gendered relegations. It provides insights on the gender dimensions in Indian agriculture, including initiatives, policy reforms and mends the literature gap in gender roles in the sector. The gender roles and impacts from different cultural and geographical horizons of Indian agricultural and allied sectors in the emerging contexts of globalization, urbanization, climate change and the Covid19 pandemic is gathered in this book.

The readership of the book covers academicians, researchers, students and social workers who strive towards a gender-neutral world.

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Preface As in all major sectors of the economy, in agriculture also, gender differentiates the roles, responsibilities, resources, constraints and opportunities of women and men. This calls for the recognition of gender as a social characteristic that cuts across caste, class, occupation, age and ethnicity. As such, precise gender information is the need of the day. Gendered dimensions of agriculture and food security are predominated by the key roles played by women in agricultural production, food processing and marketing. They play a decisive role in dietary diversity and are responsible for nutrition at home. Women comprise 20 to 50 percent of the agricultural labour force in developing countries and 79 percent in least developed countries. Their roles vary considerably between and within regions and are changing rapidly in many parts of the world, where economic and social forces are transforming the agricultural sector. This book is an attempt to comprehend and compile the history, present status and future trends of gender roles in agriculture. The book comprises of three divisions viz., Gender in agriculture development (Part I), Gender in allied sectors of agriculture (Part II) and Data, Tools and approaches in gender analysis (Part III), that explicates the prevalent gendered relegations. It provides insights on the gender dimensions in Indian agriculture, including initiatives, policy reforms and mends the literature gap in gender roles in the sector. The gender roles and impacts from different cultural and geographical horizons of Indian agricultural and allied sectors in the emerging contexts of globalization, urbanization, climate change and the Covid19 pandemic is gathered in this book. The experience of bringing together the ideas of eminent academics including Professors, Scientists and Research scholars from across the country and abroad has been a difficult but a rewarding learning experience. We gratefully appreciate the sincere efforts of all authors in giving the best. The message and foreword by eminent agricultural scholars have brought better credentials to the publication.

 
1 Gender in Agriculture: A Development Perspective
Binoo P. Bonny, Akhil Ajith, Lokesh S.

1. Emergence and history of the concept of gender in development In a chronological point of view it was the period of late 1960s to mid1970s that marked a turning point in development that saw the emergence of gender as an issue of concern. It was during this period that many important publications on psychology of women and gender roles started its manifestation. However, the recurring theme in most of these publications focussed the white male bias in research and research interpretation. Yet, these research publications served as a platform for a thorough discussion of the biological and social factors that contributed to the understanding of psychology of women. The book entitled, The Development of Sex Differences, edited by Maccoby (1966), can be seen as a pivotal moment in the field of gender psychology. The book with several chapters that lay the foundations of children’s gender development focused on theories of gender development. The publication of the book Man and Women, Boy and Girl in the 1970s put forth an advanced theory about gender identity and suggested that social factors played a more significant role in gender identity and gender roles. This sparked the debate of nature - nurture issues which are still significant to this very date. It’s during the same decade that scholars started to challenge the conceptualisations of masculinity and femininity and migrate from the unidimensional simplistic models of bipolar opposites. Contributions of Carl Gustav Jung (originally Karl Gustav Jung) also had a great role in this migration. Carl Jung’s school of analytical psychology, proposed the concepts of anima and animus. These were part of his theory called collective unconscious which suggests that every woman has an unconscious masculine realm known as animus and every man has an unconscious feminine side known as anima. He postulated that this personal unconscious symbolized prototypical masculine or feminine principles and not an aggregate of either father or mother. It had the potential to transcend to the personal psyche and influence the behavior.

1 - 14 (14 Pages)
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2 Gender Disaggregated Data in Agriculture
Mathura Swaminathan, S. Niyati

1. Introduction For a proper understanding and analysis of women’s position in India’s rural economy, we require adequate and good quality data. This chapter examines the limitations of gender-disaggregated data on the rural economy of India with respect to three aspects: the ownership of land and other assets, participation in the rural workforce, and women’s share of agricultural incomes and earnings. In approaching the need for better data on gender, the following features of gender statistics as identified by UN organisations should be kept in mind (Corner undated)

15 - 28 (14 Pages)
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3 Gender Advocacy for Food and Nutritional Security
Ruchira Bhattacharya

1. Introduction There is a global evidence of deterioration of nutrition and food security condition following the Pandemic and subsequent economiclockdown (Summerton, 2020; Laborde et al., 2020). In India, the status of nutrition and food security has been a matter of concern for decades. India scored an alarming rankof 102 out of 116 countries in Global Hunger Index (IFPRI, 2019). The problem has also been a gendered one, with an abysmally higher proportion of malnourishment and hunger in women and children in India. As per NFHS 4 (2015-16), every second woman in reproductive age in India was suffering from anaemia, two in five children were suffering from stunting and every tenth child in India was suffering from acute malnourishment (IIPS, 2017). It is not difficult to imagine that this existing malnutrition-crisis has only worsened in the post-lockdown period. There is a consensus among academicians, policy makers and planners that the nutrition crisis needs to be linked to gender-based exclusions & vulnerabilities (Quisumbing et al., 2020). This chapter attempts to discuss some of these complicacies of food-nutrition-gender linkages to put forth gender advocacy for food & nutrition policies. Evidence of linkages between gender and nutrition are there althoughit is difficult to establish precise empirical connect. Also, the pathways through which gender influences nutrition and food security are multiple and complex. Food/nutrition-policy, therefore, has a long way to go till it is gender-informed. To begin with, the understanding of the concept of gender is limited at the policy-level. Moreover, most of the nutrition-food related policies in India have not mainstreamed gender or are working ina gender-specific manner rather than redistributive manner1. It is in this pretext the chapter reviewed the available evidence on gender-nutrition linkages to put forth an argument not only in favour of gender-aware nutrition policies, but also to guide as to how Gender should be integrated. The chapter is structured in five sections with sections that discusses the concept, i.e., importance of context in policy-level for conceptualising gender-needs. This is followed by a review of existing work from a Gender Needs framework and selected empirical evidence from recent primary study of the author are also presented as another separate section. The relevance of reviewing gender-nutrition linkage after COVID19 Pandemic also find place in the chapter. Finally the summary concludes the discussion on gender advocacy in nutrition.

29 - 48 (20 Pages)
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4 Design and Implementation of Gender Sensitive Extension Programmes
Nimisha Mittal, Rasheed Sulaiman V.

1. Context Women play a critical role in agriculture, and agriculture continues to remain the major livelihood strategy for women as well as millions of small, marginal and poor farming households in India. Despite this, farm women lack access to extension services as extension programmes rarely identify women as an integral client. Farm women and men have differential needs for knowledge, information, technology and skills as often they are involved in different activities spread over time and cropping seasons. Besides these, men and women farmers have differential access to assets, information, markets, credits, and other services that are necessary for using new knowledge, technologies and skills. Ignoring women while delivering services and technologies creates a gap as many of the agricultural operations are performed by women only. It is estimated that if women had the same access to productive resources as men, they could increase yields on their farms by 20-30 per cent (FAO, 2011). Yields on plots managed by women are lower than those managed by men, as they do not have the same access to inputs. If they did, their yields would go up, they would produce more, and overall agricultural production would increase. It isn’t merely about enhancing productivity but also about being fair and equitable. Women are a significant part of the agricultural workforce and they deserve to be consulted prior to formulation of agricultural development plans and policies. SDG 5 on Gender Equality “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” is closely aligned to this aspect. Moreover, enhanced access to services can help women grow more food, have more say in the family, and could potentially lead to more income and food in women’s hands-leading to better food security and nutrition for the entire family as they are the major caregivers in the family.

49 - 64 (16 Pages)
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5 Public Private Partnership for Gender Mainstreaming in Agriculture
K. Ponnusamy

1. Background Agriculture sustains 58 per cent of population in India. Productivity and profitability are two major planks for food security and sustainable livelihood of farmers. About 86 per cent of farmers in India own less than two hectors of land. As a result, their marketable surplus is small which poses a major challenge in ensuring remunerative price. Limitations associated with quality of produce, storage, transportation, credit as well as vagaries of weather and market are other related problems. These limitations further aggravate if the producers happen to be women due to their socio-cultural and economic position in the society. Only a decentralised and income assuring approach alone can bring prosperity to the farmers apart from gender equality. This would ultimately propel the agricultural growth of the country. The chapter discusses one of such approaches called the public private partnership (PPP). It has gained prominence in the wake of the demand for farm reforms, trade, commerce, climate change and gender equality in recent years.

65 - 80 (16 Pages)
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6 Gender in Agriculture Research: Trends Over the Years
Jayasree Krishnankutty, Shilpa Karat, Shinoji K.C.

1. Introduction Gender equality in agriculture is a long time demand to achieve the sustainable agricultural development goals. According to the World Bank (2009) differences in the socially constructed gender roles and gender relations affect agricultural development as it creates inequality in the distribution, access to and control over agricultural resources between men and women; that in turn affect the agricultural development outcomes. However, role of men and women in agriculture is not constant across the world due to the disparities existing in the allocation of productive farm resources to women and men among different societies and cultures. Most of the agrarian social systems recognize men as the key players of crop production due to their ownership over agricultural land and other resources. This often masks the significance of activities carried out by farm women in the crop production process. Currently agriculture provides employment to nearly 27.2 percent men and 25.4 percent women globally (World Bank, 2020). Irrespective of the unequal power relations between men and women, their relative representation in the agriculture workforce remained almost equal throughout the years. Hence, it became inevitable to address the concerns of both genders in agriculture rather than concentrating only on women centric issues while formulating programmes and policies aiming agricultural development. These trends in agriculture motivated social researchers like Safiliou (1990) to propose gender as a ‘variable’ similar to ‘social class’ to rationalize agriculture. Globally, gender based researches has covered various dimensions of contributions of men and women in agriculture as cultivators as well as agricultural labours in different time period. However, studies on topics related to women’s rights, women empowerment, and gender equality in order to achieve food security and agricultural development has increasingly been carried out after the “fourth world conference on women: action for equity, development and peace” held at Beijing (China) during 4-15 September, 1995. Though gender research in agriculture mostly revolves around farm women and their empowerment concepts like marketing extension, market-led extension etc., it has led to the empowerment of both women and men cultivators. The chapter discusses the concept of gender in research and development, its evolution and its integration into research perspectives in agriculture. A brief description of gender analysis tools is also included.

81 - 94 (14 Pages)
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7 Gender Dimensions in Natural Resource Management
Prema, A., Hema M., Jyotsna C.

1. Introduction “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed” Mahatma Gandhi Natural resources form the core of ecology that is put to economic use. It is usually defined in terms of materials created in nature that are used to satisfy human needs. Soil, water and energy supplies (eg. coal, natural gas) that serve to satisfy human needs and wants comprise the major natural resources (Barsch and Burger, 1996). Based on the impact on an environment, cost of extraction and rate of exhaustion, natural resources are broadly categorized into renewable and non-renewable resources. Major renewable sources comprise of wind, solar energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, forest etc. which have the potential to be renewed or replaced through natural processes over time, once consumed. Unlike this, nonrenewable resources such as coal, petroleum, natural gas and similar types have finite reserves that cannot be regained once consumed. However, environmental degradation, aggravated by the growing population and climate change vagaries, has intensified the competition for these scarce resources in recent years. This has necessitated sustainable natural resource management strategies and advanced experimentations to convert nonrenewable energy sources to renewable forms as they form the basis of all present day development and economic growth. Increasing demands on natural resources have warranted a more prudent and diligent efforts in ensuring sustainable natural resource management. The dichotomy of unlimited human wants and limited resource availability is at the heart of all natural resource management principles that guide economics of resource allocation and optimum utilization.

95 - 108 (14 Pages)
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8 Climate Change and Gender Vulnerabilities in Agriculture
Chitra Parayil, Aiswarya.T.P., Binoo P. Bonny

1. Introduction The world’s temperature has already warmed up to almost 1.2ºC since the preindustrial levels and this warming impact is visible in the form of extreme weather events, sea level rise and diminishing Arctic sea ice. Heat waves and drought in Europe and China, forest fires in the U.S., dust storms and extreme rainfall in India (including the Kerala floods 2018) and high precipitation in Japan and other island nations are all examples of the disasters which have occurred within a single year of 2018. With a further 0.5ºC warming, these effects would be even more pronounced than the scientists’ previous predictions. A 1.5ºC warmer world will see higher temperatures, increase in frequency and intensity of precipitation, higher sea levels, and floods, droughts and heat waves (Venkatesh, 2018). The climate change induced economic damage has been increasing in the past few decades and is likely to continue growing because of population growth, urban development and changing land use pattern (IPCC, 2012). Kerala encountered the most disastrous floods in its history since 1924, between June 1st and August 19th of 2018. As the torrential rainfall and associated storm thrashed the state, the entire state got buried under water with only few areas remaining above water. The combined precipitation received by the state during this period was 42 per cent in excess of the typical normal. The exceptional spell of rainfall inflicted heavy damage on the life and properties of thousands of people in the state. Since 2012, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has considered gender and climate change as a stand-alone agenda item under the Conference of the Parties. This is because it has been already understood that climate change has a greater impact on those sections of the population which are more reliant on natural resources for their livelihood. People who have the least capacity to respond to natural hazards are also affected more. Majority of women, who are considered among the poorest of the poor are at a greater disadvantage because their income is mostly derived from informal natural resources dependent livelihoods. Globally, more than 400 million women engage in farm work in more than 90 countries. Agriculture being a climate sensitive sector, climate change takes a huge toll on this area. Women are usually engaged in subsistence agriculture and labor-intensive works which worsens their susceptibility to climatic change (Lambrou and Piana, 2006). Hence, during extreme weather events, women experience greater impacts and vulnerability than men and become economically insecure following disasters.

109 - 118 (10 Pages)
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9 Gender Sensitization A Step Towards Gender Inclusive Development
Sreeram Vishnu, Archana Bhatt

1. Introduction The intricate relationship between agriculture and women has been widely featured in the development discourse for long. Globally, more than 400 million women are engaged in farm work directly or indirectly. In other words, 42 per cent of economically active women are engaged in agriculture and they comprise about 43 per cent of the total workforce in agriculture (Dash and Srinath, 2013). In India, agriculture and allied sectors continue to be the most immediate avenues of employment and income for about 160 million rural women who work as farmers, co-farmers, farm labourers and farm entrepreneurs (Oxfam 2017; Sadangi et al., 2009). It is estimated that about 65 per cent of rural women workers are engaged in agriculture as cultivators and agricultural labourers in the country as opposed to 49.8 per cent of male workers. In these capacities, women perform multiple tasks such as land preparation, sowing, transplantation, harvesting and rearing of animals. Most of these operations are labour intensive and not mechanized (Pachauri, 2019). Besides, they are engaged in off-farm domestic activities such as cooking, cleaning, childcare, water and fuel collection and community activities. Shrinking remunerative opportunities in the farming sector has triggered migration of rural male folk to urban areas and also there is a shift in their job priorities to pursue employment in the rural non-farm sector in recent years. Since women did not feature predominantly in either of these trends, most of them are still engaged in agriculture, mostly as labourers and cultivators (Mehrotra, 2020). Vindicated by the fact that the number of female agricultural labourers in India increased by 24 per cent between 2001 and 2011, even though 7.7 million farmers left farming during the corresponding period. During the period when up to 34 per cent of men in rural areas migrated in search of employment and better economic opportunities, the corresponding figure for rural women is merely 3.6 per cent. A recent study of National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) found that 55 per cent of employed women in India

119 - 132 (14 Pages)
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10 Gender Sensitive Monitoring and Evaluation: Prospects and Challenges
Archana Raghavan Sathyan, Anu Susan Sam

1. Introduction Gender remains a critically important and largely ignored lens to view development issues across the world (Jayaraman, 2017). Gender inequality is the greatest human rights challenge of our time and also a critical economic, moral and social challenge (UN, 2015). There exists a significant gender gap in various sectors such as health, labour market opportunities, education and political representation all over the world. This mostly cause the restriction of women to stay at home for household chores. However, the associated disempowerment resulting from the adverse effects of restricting their way around outside world are seldom addressed in the development evaluation and monitoring processes (UNICEF, 2019). Therefore, gender equality and women empowerment are made explicit throughout the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Drawing urgency to these efforts, SDG5 aims on full gender equality and women empowerment as a cross-cutting theme along with more than 30 related targets across other SDGs. According to FAO (2011), rural women constitute about 43 percent of world’s agricultural labour force and are the agents of change and resilience builders. Even then they undergo greater constraints compared to the men counterparts in accessing technological interventions, productive resources, market information, services and financial assets. The contribution of women to food security often remains undervalued and invisible (FAO, 2011). This leads to inadequate reflection of women’s role in policy, legal and institutional frameworks. These have created difficult situations for them to address the multiple tasks of natural resource management, child rearing and family well-being, without more rural women inclusive development interventions. There would be a drastic reduction in the number of hungry population and malnourished children in the world if women had the same access as men to productive resources which in turn helps to increase yields on their farms significantly (FAO, 2018). Furthermore, they are also under-represented in grassroot level institutions and administrative mechanisms and assumed to have less decision-making ability. In addition to these constraints, women face an imprudent work burden, at the same time much of their labour remains unpaid and unrecognized under the prevailing gender norms and discrimination. It is high time to include them in decision making process within the households, communities and institutions and thus to enhance women’s participation in governance (Bayeh, 2016).

133 - 146 (14 Pages)
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11 Gender Responsive Agribusiness Development: An Indian Perspective
K.P. Sudheer, Sreelakshmi K. Unni, Ann Annie Shaju

1. Introduction Agriculture and its allied sector is the largest economic sector in India and Indian economy depends heavily on the performance of this sector. Along with production, changes are occurring in supply, machinery, processing, distribution and marketing in the agriculture sector. All over the world, agriculture is passing through a phase of transition, and elements such as discrimination free trade, fair trade, transparency and its resulting predictability, scope for fair competition are being facilitated in to the agriculture sector through different norms and agreements. Due to the concerns about the environment, requirement of clean fuel which can be derived from vegetable sources are also getting increased. All these developments have created new opportunities and scopes for agriculture and agribusiness. Agripreneurship is considered as an employment in the strategy in the country especially for rural people. It promotes our economy by improving productivity and integrating the products into different markets including international markets. It helps in the reduction of cost and avoiding the uncertainties related to markets. To promote micro to medium scale industries, agripreneurship has a major role. Agripreneur faces constraints in related to identification of scope, proper time management and allocating budget etc. and proper project management skills are required to counter these constraints. Agripreneur should also consider sustainability, social and economic factors also (Gupta et al., 2017). The male-centered business models were considered as the norm till the advent of the present century. But now we have entered an era where there is consensus that women entrepreneurs’ have huge role in the national economic development. Moreover, a significant number of studies show that even though there is a gap between the number of men and women entrepreneurs, the contribution from women entrepreneurs has been constantly on the rise. This is despite the challenges faced by women entrepreneurs with respect to availability of credit, training, networks and information access and policy constraints. In order to ensure sustainable economic growth, it is necessary to embrace women’s entrepreneurship as it gives new market opportunities and greater development impact. In this chapter, emphasis is given to women entrepreneurship and its contribution to national economy, social empowerment and national integration. Also the challenges and opportunities faced by women in agri-entrepreneurship and changes in the perceptions on women entrepreneurship are discussed.

147 - 174 (28 Pages)
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12 Gender in Household Nutrition and Community Health
T.V. Hymavathi

1. Introduction Adequate nutrition is the fundamental keystone of any individual’s health. It is especially crucial for women because it causes havoc not only on the woman’s health but also on their children’s health and in turn the community. Malnutrition causes a variety of risks to women. It undermines women’s ability to survive childbirth, makes them more susceptible to infections, and leaves them with fewer reserves to recover from illness. Children of malnourished women are found to face impaired cognition, short stature, decreased resistance to infections, and an increased risk of disease and death throughout their lives. The increasing number of malnourished population in any country is a threat to its technological and economic development. Moreover, a chronically undernourished woman in every probability will give birth to a baby who is likely to be undernourished as a child.Thus malnourishment in women perpetuate the cycle of under-nutrition to be repeated over generations.In other words, women’s nutritional status impacts the countries nutritional status. Despite economic progress, India has failed to combat malnutrition that adversely affects the country’s socio-economic progress. This is reflected in the hunger score of 27.2 which categorized India in ‘serious’ hunger category. The Global Hunger Index (GHI) rank of the country is 94 among 107 countries in 2020 and was 102 out of 117 countries in 2019. In fact, GHI is calculated based on the four indicators viz. undernourishment, child wasting, child stunting and child mortality. Estimates also suggest that more than one-third of the world’s malnourished children are in India. Among the varied causes of malnutrition in the country, major ones include mother’s nutritional status, lactation behaviour, women’s education and sanitation. These in turn affect children in several forms and get manifested as childhood illness, stunting, and retarded growth. Therefore, addressing the nutrition of women population at all levels is essential to safeguard the future generations, and in turn the human capital and economic development of any nation.

175 - 184 (10 Pages)
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13 Gender and Livestock Development
Reeja George P.

1. The Context Poverty continues to be a major issue the world over. Over the last decade there has been a significant reduction in the number of the extremely poor. Extreme poverty rates fell from 10.1 per cent in 2015 to 9.2 per cent in 2017 (https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/global-poverty-reduction-slowing-regionaltrends-help-understanding-why). However, despite these achievements, we still have 689 million people living on less than two dollars a day and estimates by the World Bank in 2020 indicate that if one takes an account of higher poverty lines we have 24.1 percent of the world living on less than $3.20 a day and 43.6 percent on less than $5.50 a day in 2017 (http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview). The disturbing aspect of this analysis are the facts that half of this poor are children and in most areas where poverty is encountered women represent a sizeable chunk of them. Poverty in real life is translated into lack of access to education and consumption of diets that are both quantitatively and qualitatively deficient in crucial micro nutrients and vitamins, placing them at higher risks on account of protein energy malnutrition, vitamin A deficiency and the all pervading problem of anaemia. The social consequences of such diets and implications for human capital of the world in the later part of this century would be devastating. Poverty among women has huge repercussions for the citizens of tomorrow. It is in this context that the role of livestock products assumes crucial importance. Milk, eggs and meat have some of the highest bio-availabilities of crucial protein, iron and vitamin A. Berrazaga et al. (2019) observed that though plant proteins are beneficial in terms of the advantages that they offer from environmental and health points of view, the anabolic effect of plant proteins is generally lower than that of animal proteins. This is on account of their lower digestibility, relatively lower contents of essential amino acids such as leucine and the lack of sulphur amino acids such as lysine. The authors further observed that food protein quality was assessed by digestibility, net protein utilisation and biological value and these

185 - 194 (10 Pages)
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14 Gender Roles in Fisheries and Aquaculture
Tanuja S., H.K. De, G.S. Saha, I. Sivaraman, S.K. Swain, S.K. Srivastava

1. Introduction Fisheries is an important sector of food production which besides providing nutritious food to millions also serve as a livelihood option for many. It helps to bring about people centered rural development that protects the environment. Conventionally, fishing has been considered a male domain, because of the assumption that social, cultural, or religious taboos prevent women from participating in fishing activities. In fact, the involvement of women in fishing and related activities has remained invisible and unrecognized till the late 1980s. However, the publications and policy reports during the period highlighted the valued contributions by women in fisheries sector to economies and food security around the world (Harper et al., 2020). Several high-level fisheries reports and policy instruments that followed added to this momentum and emphasized the importance of principles of gender equality in ensuring sustainable coastal livelihood security. Present day estimates indicate that there are around 60 million people who are directly engaged in the primary sector of fisheries and aquaculture globallyof which 14 per cent are women (FAO, 2018) Asia tops the list with the highest number of fishers and aquaculture workers (85 per cent of the world total), followed by Africa (9 per cent), America (4 per cent) and Europe and Oceania (1 per cent each) (FAO, 2018). However, despite growing attention to women and gender in fisheries there exits glaring gap in the gender disaggregated data from fisheries sector that is skewed against women worldwide. These warrant the need for the implementation gender balanced fisheries policies and management strategies that support women empowerment in the sector.

195 - 210 (16 Pages)
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15 Gender Perspectives in Forest Management
Parvathy Venugopal, Abha Manohar, K.

1. Introduction Much of humankind has either at least interacted with forests or benefited from forests for their lives and livelihoods. Approximately 1.6 billion rural people worldwide, mainly in tropical regions, depend upon forests in one form or the other. People rely on forests or forest services as sources of food, shelter, energy, building materials, fiber, fodder, income, medicine, and inspiration (Gabay and Rekola, 2019). The earlier efforts of international forest development practices were focused only on the production and industrial sector. Nonetheless, in the late 1970s and 1980s, this focus shifted to better understanding the links between people and forests. The same period has witnessed the birth of community-led (social/participatory) forest management in many countries. Women’s role in the forestry sector has also started to receive more attention and understanding during this time (FAO, 1986; Ginsburg and Keene, 2020; Kristjanson, 2020). Thus, gender roles have remained an area of interest in forest management, especially in developing countries, and the perspectives have evolved over the years. The agenda 2030 of the sustainable development goals (SDG) encompasses strategies designed to tackle gender inequities and protecting ecosystems, including forests, biodiversity, and oceans (UN, 2015). In fact, the interlinked trajectories of women and the environment have led to the emergence of the theory of ecofeminism and women environment and development (WED) in the late 1970s (Tyagi and Das, 2017). It integrates the ethics of ecology with feminism to explore the intangible interconnections between environmental degradation and sexist oppression (Warren, 1993). Though feminist discussions are not new to the forestry sector, attempts to generate gender-disaggregated data exclusively on forestry management perspectives have been scarce.

211 - 220 (10 Pages)
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16 Gender Friendly Tools and Equipments in Farm Mechanization
Suma Nair, Suresh A., Ayisha Mangat

1. The Invisible Gender India, as is always said, is primarily an agrarian economy. Despite the forward leaps taken by our society in the different novel and pioneering areas of development, agriculture remains the force that supports rural India. According to the economic survey of 2020-21, the contribution of agriculture to the country’s GDP has increased from 17.8% in 2019-20 to 19.9% in 2020-21. It is a sector that provides almost half of all the employment opportunities available in the world. The rural agricultural workforce all over the world comprises 37 per cent women and in low-income countries, it is as high as 48 per cent. Women also represent close to 50 per cent of the world’s 600 million small-scale livestock managers and about half of the labor force in small-scale fisheries. They also have a highly significant presence in the post-harvest, processing, and small scale value addition sectors also. However, these numbers are pessimistic estimations as the women’s contributions to agriculture are often unpaid labor and therefore their contributions are not fully captured (FAO, 2020). They also have a highly significant presence in the post-harvest, processing, and small-scale value addition sectors also.According to the latest reports from Oxfarm Research, the agriculture sector employs 80% of all economically active women in India, which comprise 48% of the self-employed farmers, and 33% of the agriculture labor force.Barring few states like Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal, most of the women in rural India are engaged in agriculture. It is estimated that 85% of the rural women in India work in agriculture yet own only 13% of the land. The modeled estimates of the International Labour Organization (ILO) shows a drop in females employed in agriculture from 74.38% in 2000 to 54.59% in 2019.However, under the cultural backdrop of Indian society, a significant number of women still exist as “invisible contributors.

221 - 238 (18 Pages)
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17 Gender Analysis: Strategies and Tools
Sabita Mishra

1. Introduction The gender gap in agriculture is perceived worldwide. It signifies that farm women have less access to resources, finance, capital and advisory services compared to men (FAO, 2011a). Further, women own only 1 per cent of the world’s property in spite they dominate in world food production (50 to 80 per cent) and they own less than 10 per cent of land globally (Huyer et al., 2015). But, in a healthy society, both men and women should enjoy the equal right, opportunity, accessibility and also should shoulder the equal responsibility in family building, society building or nation building. But till date, the equal status and opportunities of men and women has remained a desired goal. It happens so, as the livelihood needs of men and women are different due to their different roles, responsibilities, accessibility to resources and cultural norms. However, of late the researchers and policy makers have realized the importance of gender equality for national development and it has been one of the avowed targets in Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for 2030. This has led to the recognition and conceptualization of the concept of ‘gender analysis’ in development research. Gender analysis frameworks provide a step-by-step methodology for conducting gender analysis (Ochola et al., 2010). Gender analysis is relevant to education, although the frameworks used for development projects must be adapted to meet the needs of educational projects (Leach, 2003). The chapter discusses the concept of Gender Analysis along with the tools and frameworks available in undertaking gender analysis. Each method is discussed in detail covering the context of use, merits and limitations. The data collection formats are also discussed.

239 - 256 (18 Pages)
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18 Gender Budgeting: A Tool for Women Empowerment
Smitha S., Sulaja O.R.

1. Introduction Women empowerment is critical to the process of community development as well as for economic growth. Gender budgeting is recognized as a distinctive technique of women empowerment that directly upholds women development through allocation of budgetary fund. It aims at bringing gender equality through allocation of public funds and affirmative action for under-privileged sections. In fact, the term gender budgeting has been explained differently by various authors. A comprehensive definition states “gender budgeting as a dissection of the government funds to establish its gender differential impacts and to translate gender commitments into budgetary commitments” (Sharp, Rhonda, 1999). It can be viewed as a mainstream application of gender in the budgeting process. It ensures gender assessment of the budget, including reorganization of revenue and expenditure to incorporate gender perspective at all levels of the budget process. Gender budgeting therefore deals with gender specific formulation of laws, policies, plans, schemes and programs by allocation of resources; implementation and execution; monitoring, review and its impact assessment. It analyses the government budget from a gender perspective to assess how it addresses the needs of women in the areas of health, education, employment etc. It uses the budget as an entry point and apply the gender lens to the entire process of programme implementation. Public budgets have different effects on women and men, and describe the unequal distribution of power in society in terms of economic disparities, differences in living conditions and ascribed social roles. Gender budgeting aims to visualize the gender impact of budgets and to transmute them into an instrument for increasing gender equality. Gender budgets basically includes all types of governments at the national, regional and local levels.

257 - 268 (12 Pages)
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19 Access and Adoption of Agricultural Technology and Interventions: A Gender Analysis
Anu Susan Sam, Archana Raghavan Sathyan

1. Introduction Economic growth and the commercialization of agricultural systems have enhanced the adoption of various technological interventions in the farming systems (Rola-rubzen et al., 2020). The green revolution is one of the successful examples of technology interventions, which led to the agriculture transformation and thereby brought reduction in the hunger and poverty of India (Minten and Barrett, 2008). It conclusively proved that the adoption of these farm technology interventions can increase production, productivity and farm income. The technology interventions consisted of a package of improved crop varieties, irrigation, fertilizers, plant protection chemicals, and agricultural machinery.It also brought to fore that the nation’s capacity to maximise its agricultural production potential also relied upon the responsiveness of farmers who were the ultimate decision makers. Thus the availability and accessibility of these technologies to the farmers, and their ability to adopt and utilise these technologies assumed paramount significance in the whole process. Later decades of twentieth century proved that, along with men, women’s role is vital in agricultural production and they are the backbone of the rural economy in many developing countries including India. It is reported that women are responsible for more than 50 per cent of the world’s food production and account for about 43 per cent of the total agricultural labour force (Doss, 2018). In India, about 78 per cent of economically active women are engaged in agriculture compared to 63 per cent of men. Moreover,in rural India, almost 50 per cent of rural women are classified as agricultural labourers and 37 per cent as cultivators.

269 - 284 (16 Pages)
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20 Extension Toolkits for Gender Responsive Value Chain Development
Aparna Radhakrishnan, Allan Thomas

The Context The global food system is dynamic, with newer challenges every day with altering production and consumption subtleties. Roles played by various stakeholders of the global agricultural food system and rural development has changed tremendously in the last few decades. Smallholder farmer stakeholders to multinational companies are affected differently by the present difficulties likethe pandemic, climate change, and other factors. The various stakeholders respond, play roles to the challenges differently, and eventually become the agricultural value chains. The newer challenges affect the vulnerable actors like women, smallholder farmers, etc., who constitute asignificant portion of the value chains. This is specifically so in developing countries like India, where the processes of the ‘feminization of agriculture’progresses exponentially. Managing sucha value chain is highly challenging as access and sustainability of various actors differ considerably. Agro-advisory service toolkit for gender-responsive value chain analysis and development aims to select and analyze value chains for opportunities to improve the vulnerable situation and its actors seeking for resilience and reducing gender inequalities. It is now considered a development strategy to promote economic growth. There is an urgent need that thesmallholder farming systems are integrated into the value chains to serve local, national, regional, and global markets. The chapter presents a brief overview of the gender-responsive value chain concept, factors that limit women’s participation in the value chain, interventions to improve the efficiency of value chains in a gendered perspective, and the development of value chain tools for addressing gender inequitiesin the agricultural system, and the challenges faced.

285 - 298 (14 Pages)
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21 Empowerment Through Rural Women Collectives
Sulaja O.R., Smitha S.

1. Introduction India Economic Survey (2018) reported that agriculture sector employed more than 50 per cent of the Indian work force. Women accounted for about 33 per cent of cultivators and 47 per cent of agricultural labourers excluding livestock, fisheries and various other ancillary forms of food production in our country (Rao, 2006). There are also reports on gender assessment which indicated that 75 percent of all women workers and 85 percent of rural workers in India are employed in agriculture (Agarwal, 2003). These suggest that the participation of women in the various fields such as agricultural professionals, entrepreneurs, cultivators, and laborers are on a steady increase. Urban migration by rural men for reasons of better economic opportunities has been identified as a major cause that gave this visibility to women as farmers and agricultural labourers. This indicate the emergence of agriculture as a viable livelihood alternative especially among rural women. It has been widely reported that the major difficulty experienced by the farm women has been the lack of control and ownership of the land resources, which rendered them inaccessible to credit, technology and training. Findings of FAO (2011) indicated that, if women farmers had equal property rights, access to scientific knowledge, monetary services, education and training facilities as their male counterparts, agricultural production would have increased to that extent that the number of persons in acute hunger in the world could be reduced by 100-150 million. A study conducted by Ghosh and Ghosh (2014) on the share of women in agricultural activities across Indian states revealed that majority of women residing throughout the country generate their financial gains through farming and ancillary enterprises. Deviation of this trend could be observed only in Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal where women were actively engaged in non-farming enterprises related to the well-developed service sector of these states. In the states of Himachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Rajasthan and Bihar more than 80 per cent of women were engaged in agriculture. The study also observed that wages of agricultural labour, income from farming, price volatility of agricultural produces and unpredictable weather conditions had significant influence on the livelihood options of majority of women headed households in India.

299 - 308 (10 Pages)
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22 Emotional Intelligence in Gender Empowerment History: Reality and Challenges
Devi Soumyaja

1. Introduction Anybody can become angry-that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way-that is not within everybody’s power and is not easy. – Aristotle. The word emotion is derived from the French word, “emouvoir” which means ‘to excite’. Researchers have been interested in emotions since time immemorial. One of the earliest reported studies on emotions was attempted by Aristotle in 4th Century BC wherein he identified 14 distinct emotions. The traditional Indian art and literature talks about ‘navarasas’, nine emotions namely, joy (hasya), fear (bhayanaka), anger (raudra), love (shringar), courage (vira), sadness (karuna), amazement (adbhuta), disgust (vibhatsya) and calmness (shanti). Darwin (1872) theorized that emotions can be innate, evolved, and had a functional purpose. Robert Plutchik in 1980 talked about eight basic emotions, which he grouped into four pairs of polar opposites namely, joy-sadness, anger-fear, trust-distrust, surprise-anticipation. Renowned psychologist Paul Ekman and his colleagues through a cross cultural study in 1992 identified six basic emotions namely, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. The popular animation movie produced by Pixar and released by Disney pictures in the year 2015,explored the emotional adjustment journey of a girl Riley, through the five basic emotions, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness, adapted from Ekman’s work. In a recent study by Cowen and Keltner (2017) researchers identified 27 unique emotions. In yet another study to identify emotions based on facial expressions irrespective of sociocultural influences by Jack et al. (2016) just four emotions, happiness, sadness, anger and fear were recognized.

309 - 316 (8 Pages)
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23 Property Entitlement: Introspection on Women Rights
Adv. Linipriya Vasan

1. Introduction Observing the right to property from the angle of human right, it could be perceived that it is an essential component of freedom and development (Narveson, 2010). In his literature Levy (1995) maintains that, free speech is of little value to a person who has no entitlement on property. He also holds the view that only property can enable the individual to make independent decisions and choices because he is not beholden to anyone and has no need to be subservient. Thus property ownership is basically grounded on considered and intrinsic values of human right. Strategically it assists economic human rights essential for development. Intrinsically it provides every one the right to preserve human dignity and in turn worth to protect human rights. Moreover, every individual should enjoy the legal protection that is perpetually required to preserve his or her human dignity. Access to use and control of productive resources including land are essential to ensure the equality and adequate standard of living among persons. The discussions on woman right to land are somehow interlinked with global food security and also sustainable development of the economy. The crucial obstacles on these rights are inadequate legal standard, ineffective implementation mechanism, and discriminatory cultural values. In many capitalist societies women are still being vulnerable and subjected to exploitation which emerges from their exclusion from property ownership rights. Indeed the claim from women, for right to own property confirms the proposition laid down by Levy (1995) that the property rights relieves its owner to be subservient to others. However, the deteriorated rule of democracy obviously protect the discriminated and arbitral rules in almost every part of the world.

317 - 326 (10 Pages)
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