Preface Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of natural, economic and social sciences that are used in practice and understanding of Agriculture. The country has made significant advances in many of farm sectors such as service sector, industrial production etc, but agriculture continues to be the lifeline of the nation, especially for the Indians living in rural areas. Food is the most basic human need. During the past 60 years, agricultural education has expanded rapidly in India to meet nation’s demand for human resources and Agricultural technology. By means of Research and Development, the farmer has been enabled to increase yield per acre, reduce losses from diseases, pests, and spoilage and augment net production by improved processing methods. Students have variety of options to pursue courses in Agriculture. In India, need of Agricultural graduates is more to serve our nation for reducing the constraints in Agriculture. This compendium provides an ample information for competitive exams point of view for aspiring students and will benefit maximum number of ambitious graduates to get into services of public and private sectors. Hope this book “A Handbook of Agricultural Sciences Vol. 2” would be supportive to the Agriculture graduates in this competitive world.

1.1. Pests Derived from French word ‘Peste’ and Latin term ‘Pestis’ meaning plague or contagious disease Any animal which is noxious, destructive or troublesome to man or his interests (man’s welfare, convenience, profit and economic damage).

2.1. Causes of pest outbreak Activity of human beings which upsets biotic balance of ecosystem is prime cause for pest outbreak.

3.1. Paddy 3.1.1. Thrips: Stenchaetothrips biformis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

4.1. Black gram, green gram, lablab and cowpea 4.1.1. Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera) 1. Host range: Groundnut, redgram, peas, beans, safflower, lablab, niger

5.1. Groundnut 5.1.1. Aphids - Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

6.1. Cotton 6.1.1. Leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)

7.1. Early shoot borer: Chiloinfuscatellus snellen 1. Damage symptoms

8.1. Definition Managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools to minimize economic, health, and environmental risks.

9.1. Plant quarantine Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and between states within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist. Plant quarantine regulatory measures are operative through the Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1914 (Act 2 of 1914) in the country.

10.1. Classification of pesticides 10.1.1. Based on organisms

Semiochemicals are chemical substances that mediate communication between organisms. Classified into pheromones (intra specific semiochemicals) and allelochemicals (inter specific semiochemicals).

12.1. Sprayers Atomizes spray fluid into a small droplets and eject it with little force for distributing it properly. Regulates amount of pesticide to avoid excessive application that is wasteful or harmful.

13.1. Storage pests 13.1.1. Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae, S. zeamais, S. granarius 1. Host range: Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, paddy.

1.1. Definition Alteration in one or more of physiological processes culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as a result of the continuous irritation due to presence or absence of some factor or agent. A plant is said to be diseased when there is a harmful deviation from normal functioning of physiological process (Federation of British Plant Pathologists, 1973).

2.1. Types of plant diseases 2.1.1. Types of infection 1. Localized diseases

Methods for plant diseases control were first classified by Whetzel (1929) into exclusion, eradication, protection and immunization. Two more principles - avoidance and therapy were created (NAS, 1968).

4.1. Physical methods Employed for reduction or elimination of primary inoculums that may be present in seed, soil or planting material.

5.1. Cultural methods 5.1.1. Eradication Elimination of pathogen after it has become established in the area where host is growing.

6.1. Fungicides Fungicide originated from two latin words viz., fungus and caedo. Word caedo means to kill. Fungicide is a chemical agent which has the ability to reduce or prevent the damage caused to plants and their products. Physical agents like ultra violet light and heat should also be considered as fungicides. Antisporulant and fungistatic compounds do not kill the fungi, they are included under the broad term fungicide

7.1. Rice 7.1.1. Blast Magnaporthe oryzae (formerly Magnaporthe grisea) anamorph: (Pyricularia oryzae)

8.1. Redgram 8.1.1. Wilt: Fusarium udum 1. Symptoms

9.1. Groundnut 9.1.1. Early leaf spot: Cercospora arachidicola 1. Symptoms

10.1. Sugarcane 10.1.1. Yellow leaf disease 1. Vector: Melanaphis sacchari , Rhopalosiphum maidis 2. Symptoms

11.1. Storage fungi Store fungi include all species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. Aspergillus flavus, A. candidus, A. niger, A. parasiticus, A. repens, A. rubber, A. versicolor, etc. Penicillia etc Penicillia are more prevalent in cooler climate.

1.1. Above ground feeders 1.1.1. Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs. Seed gall nematode: Anguina tritici Leaf and bud neamtode: Aphelenchoides Stem and bulb nematode: Ditylenchus

2.1. Rice 2.1.1. Rice root knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola) 1. Symptoms

3.1. Definition Systems approach to reduce nematode to tolerable levels through predators and parasites, genetically resistant hosts, natural environmental modifications and appropriate nematicides.

1.1. Weeds Plants that are unwanted in a given situation and may be harmful, dangerous or economically detrimental. Weed invasion ranked second to habitat loss in causing biodiversity decline. Major threat to both the productivity of land and water and integrity of natural ecosystems.

2.1. Based on life span 2.1.1. Annual weeds

3.1. Cereals and millets 3.1.1. Rice 1. Major weeds Grasses

Bioagents like insects, pathogens etc., and other animals are used either to reduce growth or kill weeds. But, not possible to eradicate weeds.

1.1. Farm business management Concerned with resource allocation. Useful to impart knowledge and skill for optimizing the resource use and maximizing profit.

2.1. Principles Six basic principles. 2.1.1. Principle of variable proportions or laws of returns Helps in deciding optimum amount of an input needs to be applied for cultivation of a particular crop or enterprise. Law of diminishing returns will operate.

Classification of the farming systems based on following criteria Available natural resources, include water, land, grazing areas and forest; climate especially altitude; landscape including slope; farm size, tenure and organization. Dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods, include field crops, livestock, trees, aquaculture, hunting and gathering, processing and off-farm activities.

4.1. Agricultural production economics An applied science, wherein principles of choice are applied to use of land, labour, capital and management in farming. Explains conditions under which profit and output can be maximized and cost and use of physical inputs can be minimized.

5.1. Cost concepts Cost refers to the money value of effort extended or sacrifice made in producing an article or rendering a service or achieving a specific purpose. Expenses incurred in organizing and carrying out production process. Includes outlays of funds for inputs and services. Total costs: Money value of all inputs used in the production process.

6.1. Management of important farm resources Factors of production are land, labour, machinery, equipments and buildings.

7.1. Farm planning Decision making process in farm business Involves organization and management of limited resources to realize specified goals continuously. Selecting most profitable course of action from among all possible alternatives.

8.1. Comparative advantage principle Different areas or regions or farmers will tend to produce those products for which they have greatest comparative and not just absolute advantage. Due to an extension and application of principles of specialization and diversification. Each farm or region produces those crops or raises that livestock which it can grow more profitably For example, farmers in Tamil Nadu specialize in sugarcane cultivation and those in Punjab specialize in paddy cultivation.

9.1. Risk Situation in which one knows both possible future and probability outcomes.

1.1. Credit Defined as a device for facilitating temporary transfer of purchasing power from those who have surpluses of it to those who are in need of it.

2.1. Recommendation of expert committees Commercial banks tended to concentrate more on industrial sector than agricultural sector. Indian Central Banking Committee (1931), Agricultural Finance Subcommittee (1945), Rural Banking Enquiry Committee (1950), All India Rural Credit survey committee (1951), All India Rural Debt and Investment Survey (1961-62) and Informal Group on Institutional Arrangements for Agricultural Credit (1964) suggested that financing agriculture by commercial banks was not significant (Until 1950).

3.1. Reserve Bank of India Established in April 1, 1935 as per RBI Act, 1934. Agricultural Credit Department (ACD) organized in 1935 coordinated Bank’s operations with State Co-operative Banks and other banks and organization dealing with agricultural credit Financing agriculture by commercial banks is looked after by Department of Banking Operations and Development (DBOD) While, ACD continued to take care of co-operative credit

4.1. Area approach National Credit Council was set up in December, 1967 Study group in October, 1968 under chairmanship of Prof. D R Gadgil found that Commercial Banks had penetrated only 5000 villages as of June, 1967 and its share was 1% compared to co-operatives. Recommended the adoption of an area approach for bridging the spatial and structural credit gaps. All India Rural Credit Review Committee 1969 also endorsed the view the Commercial Banks should increasingly came forward to finance activities in rural areas. RBI accepted recommendation and formulated Lead Bank Scheme (LBS) in December, 1969 Each district had been assigned to different banks (Public and private) to act as a consortium leader to coordinate branch expansion and credit planning. Nationalization of 14 major Commercial Banks in July 1969 (Another 6 banks in 1980), paved the way for branch expansion network in unbanked rural and semi urban areas.

5.1. Emergence of Service Area Approach During the five years ended 1985-86 Gross value added in agricultural sector: 2.70% per annum. Share of agriculture in total net domestic product declined from 39.80% to 35.40%. Food grains production increased from 133.30 million tons to 150.50 million tons by 18% In contrast, there was 41% increase in outstanding level of credit for agriculture from rural lending agencies viz., Co-operatives, RRBs and CBs between June 1981 and June 1986. Share of Haryana, Punjab and U.P. in total food grains production was around 38% accounted for 75% increase in food grains output. However, their share in the total institutional credit was 22% only.

6.1. Principles of farm finance 6.1.1. Five Cs’

7.1. Crop insurance Helps in stabilization of farm production and income of farming community. Helps in optimal allocation of resources in production process. Crop insurance is sold and bought in a market. Has a limited role in risk management in farming. Any limitations to scope for effective and economic crop insurance can change over time.

8.1. Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Credit scheme introduced in August 1998 by Indian Banks. Prepared by NABARD on recommendations of R.V.Gupta committee to provide term loans and agricultural needs. KCC holders are covered under personal accident insurance up to Rs.50,000 for death and permanent disability and up to Rs.25,000 for other risk. Premium is borne by both bank and borrower in a 2:1 ratio. Validity period is five years with an option to extend for up to three more years.

9.1. Agriculture Insurance Company of India Limited (AIC) Formed 1 April 2003 took over implementation of National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) from General Insurance Corporation of India. Also transacts other insurance businesses directly or indirectly concerning agriculture and its allied activities.

1.1. Concept and definition 1.1.1. Marketing Process of getting right goods or services or ideas to right people at right place, time, and price using right promotion techniques and utilizing appropriate people to provide customer service associated with those goods, services, or ideas.

2.1. Market structure Refers to those organizational characteristics of a market which influence nature of competition and pricing, and affect the conduct of business firms. Those characteristics of market which affect the traders behavior and their performances. Formal organization of functional activity of a marketing institution. A knowledge of structure is essential to identify imperfections in performance of a market.

3.1. Marketing efficiency Degree of market performance. Whether it fulfills objectives assigned or maximizes fulfillment of objectives with given level of resources (or costs) Whether it is responsive to impulses generated through environmental changes and whether impulses are transmitted at all levels in the system. For example Farmers expect quick market clearance and higher prices for their produce Consumers expect ready availability of products in form and quality desired at lower prices Traders and other functionaries expect steady and increasing incomes Government expects system to safeguard interest of all three sections to maximize welfare of society.

3.1. Marketing efficiency Degree of market performance. Whether it fulfills objectives assigned or maximizes fulfillment of objectives with given level of resources (or costs) Whether it is responsive to impulses generated through environmental changes and whether impulses are transmitted at all levels in the system. For example Farmers expect quick market clearance and higher prices for their produce Consumers expect ready availability of products in form and quality desired at lower prices Traders and other functionaries expect steady and increasing incomes Government expects system to safeguard interest of all three sections to maximize welfare of society.

4.1. Definition Kohls and Uhl refer to expansion of firms by consolidating additional marketing functions and activities under a single management. Establishment of wholesaling facilities by food retailers and setting up of another plant by a milk processor.

5.1. Meaning and importance of risk Hardy defined as uncertainty about cost, loss or damage. Inherent in all marketing transactions. Destruction of produce by fire, rodents or other elements, quality deterioration, price fall, change in tastes, habits or fashion, and risk of placing commodity in wrong hands or area. Longer the time lag, greater will be the risk. Cannot be dispensed with and be ar the risk in marketing process. One who holds commodity in process is risk bearer, because of which he may be better off or worse off

Speculation and hedging are important ways of minimizing price risk in business. Speculation: Risk is taken by person specializing in business without much consideration of business trends. Hedging: A calculated risk is taken.

7.1. Marketing institutions Business organizations which have come up to operate the marketing machinery. Individuals, corporate, co-operative and government institutions are operating in agricultural marketing.

8.1. Warehousing 8.1.1. Definitions Defined as the assumption of responsibility for storage of goods. Protector of national wealth, for the produce stored in warehouses is preserved and protected against rodents, insects and pests and against the ill effect of moisture and dampness.

9.1.AGMARK ‘Ag’ means agriculture and ‘mark’ means certification mark. Certifying agency: Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Government of India Effective region: India Effective since: 1986 Product category: Agricultural products

10.1. Co-operative marketing Private agencies dominate Indian food grains trade. High marketing charges and prevalence of malpractices. Progress of regulated markets is not uniform in all areas. Need for strengthening co-operative organization in marketing of farmers produce and supply inputs at right price and time.

11.1. Central Silk Board Established in 1948 at Bangalore under administrative control of Ministry of Textiles.

12.1. Agribusiness Concept was born in Harvard University in 1957. John David and A. Goldberg wrote a book ‘A concept of Agri-business’. In early 1966, University of Philippines offered an Agri-Business Management (ABM) UG program. In 1969, first Advanced Agribusiness Management seminar held in Manila.

13.1. Forms of business organisations Factors to be given weightage for choice of a suitable form of organization Type of business - service, trade, manufacturing. Selection of industry and area of operation. Scope of operations, volume of business and market size, including its expected growth potential. Amount of capital funds required – initial capital, working capital.

14.1. Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) Set up in January, 1965 in name of Agricultural Prices Commission (APC) on recommendations of Food grains Prices Committee headed by Shri L.K.Jha. Prices for different agricultural crops by GOI on the recommendations of CACP are announced as minimum support prices, statutory minimum prices, procurement prices and issue prices.

15.1. Minimum Support Price (MSP) MSP are announced by GOI at beginning of sowing season for certain crops on basis of recommendations of CACP. MSP is price fixed by GOI to protect producer - farmers against excessive fall in price during bumper production years. Guarantee price for their produce from the Government. Objectives are to support farmers from distress sales and to procure food grains for PDS.

16.1. World Trade Organization (WTO) Only global international organization dealing with rules of trade between nations. Location: Geneva, Switzerland Established: 1 January 1995 Created by: Uruguay Round negotiations (1986-94) Membership: 164 members representing 98% of world trade Budget: 197 million Swiss Francs for 2018 Secretariat staff: 625 Head: Roberto Azevêdo (Director-General)

17.1. Fruit Products Order (FPO), 1995 Promulgated under Section 3 of Essential Commodities Act, 1955. For regulating sanitary and hygienic conditions in manufacture of fruit, vegetable products. Mandatory for all manufacturers of fruit, vegetable products to obtain a license under this order.

18.1. Buffer stock Refers to stock of food grains maintained by government to be used as a buffer to cushion shocks of fluctuating supply and price, to meet the emergency needs and to meet the situations arising out of serious unexpected shortages resulting from transport bottlenecks, natural calamities like war, flood, famine, earthquakes, and from the influx of refugees.

1.1. Extension Educational process for bringing about maximum number of desirable changes among the people

2.1. Radio A popular communication medium 2.1.1. Historic features In India, Madras Presidency Club pioneered radio broadcasting in 1924. Due to financial difficulties, gave it up in 1927. In 1927, businessmen in Bombay started Indian broadcasting Company with stations at Bombay and Calcutta. But, failed in 1930.

3.1. Communication Leagans (1961) refers as process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of meaning, intent and use of messages. Communis is Latin word - meaning common. Act of getting a sender and a receiver tuned together for a particular message, or a series of message. Winfield (1957) refers as whole learning process; encompasses º Teacher - message or material to be taught

4.1. Information and Communication Technology Refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. Similar to IT, but focuses on communication technologies. Includes the Internet, wireless network, cell phones, and other communication medium.

5.1. Diffusion Process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.

6.1. Etawah Pilot Project (1948) Started in 1948 by Mr. Albert Mayer of USA at Etawah district in UP Funded by the Government of UP. 6.1.1. Objectives To know the degree of productive and social improvements, through self confidence and cooperatives To find how quickly these results could be attained To know whether the results remain permanent even after the special pressure is withdrawn To assess how far the results were reproductive in other places.

7.1. Sriniketan Project (1914) Shri Rabindra Nath Tagore in 1914 established a rural reconstruction institute at Sriniketan involving youth from a group of 8 villages. Maintained a demonstration farm, a dairy and poultry unit, an outdoor clinic, a department of cottage industries and a village school. Villages were expected to approach these agencies through village workers who lived in villages to obtain solution of their more pressing problems. Scheme of land development and tree plantation were given due importance. Experiment on paddy, sugarcane and cotton were undertaken.

8.1. Terms and definitions 8.1.1. Extension program A written statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions which has been prepared on the basis of an adequate and systematic planning effort and which forms the basis of extension teaching activities in a specific area for a given period.

9.1. Rural Sociology Science of rural society. Study of sociological life in rural setting to discover their conditions and tendencies and to formulate principles of progress. A.R. Desai: Rural Sociology involves the study of human relationships in rural situations.

10.1. Social value Ideas which help an individual to discriminate whether a particular object or behaviour is good or bad, desirable or undesirable. Norms: Times rules which govern the action Normative behavior: People are expected to behave in accordance with the values held by the individual. S.C. Dood defined the value as “desiderata” i.e., anything desired or chosen by someone, sometime. Value may be considered as attitude-related attribute that are projected upon people, objects and situations.

11.1. Definition Jones: Variations or modifications of any aspect of social process, social patterns, social interaction or social organization. Gillin and Gillin: Variations from the accepted modes of life; whether due to alteration in geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition on the population or ideologies and whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group. Davis and Mac Iver: Change in the relationships.

12.1. Women in Agriculture Women are actively involved in various agricultural activities.