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A PRACTICAL MANUAL ON GEOLOGY AND SOILS

A. S. Mailappa
  • Country of Origin:

  • Imprint:

    NIPA

  • eISBN:

    9789390591954

  • Binding:

    EBook

  • Number Of Pages:

    116

  • Language:

    English

Individual Price: 995.00 INR 895.50 INR + Tax

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Soil Science is a unique discipline concerning a complex material that is part of many natural and utilitarian systems. Geology is the applied discipline of science and is now established as an interdisciplinary subject within agriculture, soil and environmental science as the agriculturists and soil /environmental scientists heavily require geological knowledge and information to apply in the field.  

This book is a easy ready reckoner cum reference on geology and soils for the undergraduate students of Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry.

The author has presented his academic & professional experience and conception on all aspects of geology and soils, and the book is written in a very simpler and lucid manner, following the syllabi of latest Fifth Deans’ Committee for undergraduate programmes.

This book is primarily intended for the students and scientists associated with agriculture and allied disciplines, for having a better understanding, a prerequisite for progressing ahead in acquiring in-depth knowledge on the application aspects of soil science in relation to crop growth.

0 Start Pages

Preface “Soil - The Soul of Infinite Life” a acronym is more than sufficient to highlight the importance of soil. Soil is the great connector of our lives, the source and destination of all. It is the healer, restorer of everything that supports our life on this planet. Without proper care for it, we can have no life on this planet. The importance of soil and soil management is being increasingly recognized in our country. Which have a high pressure of population on the available land and find no alternative in meeting the demand for food and other agricultural raw materials except through increase in agricultural production per unit land. Soil Science is a unique discipline concerning a complex material that is part of many natural and utilitarian systems. Geology is the applied discipline of science and is now established as an interdisciplinary subject within agriculture, soil and environmental science as the agriculturists and soil /environmental scientists heavily require geological knowledge and information to apply in the field. As such, a basic reference practical manual is highly needed for anyone to understand the practical aspects of geology and soils that ultimately help to understand the nature and properties of soil and its relation to plant growth. This book is an outcome of my visionary perception and quest of a great need for an easy ready reckoner cum reference practical manual on geology and soils for the undergraduate students of Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry. Utilizing my decade-long academic & professional experience and conception on practical aspects of geology and soils, this book is written in a very simpler and lucid manner, following the syllabi of latest Fifth Deans’ Committee for undergraduate programmes being followed in various Agricultural Universities in India, to ensure easy and clear understanding about various spheres of geology and soil science. This book is primarily intended for the students and scientists of associated with agriculture and allied disciplines, for having a better understanding about ‘practical geology and soil science’, a prerequisite for progressing ahead in acquiring in-depth knowledge on the application aspects of soil science in relation to crop growth. I hope that this book entitled “A Practical Manual on Geology and Soils” will meet the requirement of all the undergraduate and postgraduate students of soil science and other disciplines related to agriculture, horticulture and forestry and inspire them to expand their ideas and horizons in all possible ways.

 
1 Analytical Chemistry - Basic Concepts

Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry dealing with the determination of constituents of a substance or mixture of substances. 1.1 Qualitative Analysis Qualitative analysis deals with the identification of the constituents of a substance, mixture of substances, or solutions and the way in which component element or a group of elements are constituted. 1.2 Quantitative Analysis Quantitative analysis is concerned with the determination of quantitative contents of individual element or group of elements or compound present in the substances. This branch of analytical chemistry is of enormous scope and importance in science, industry and agriculture. The quantitative analysis can be divided into several categories based on the different methods employed for their quantitative measurements such as:

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2 Laboratory Vessels and Their Uses

2.1 Beakers Beakers are the one of most important vessels used in laboratory which is made up of heat resistant glass. They are available in various capacities ranging from 10 to 3000 mL. For convenience of pouring solution, spout is provided in the beaker. They are used to perform titrations & for boiling solutions, etc., Beakers are constructed in tall and low forms.

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3 Basic Principles of Analytical Techniques and Instrumental Methods

Instrumental methods of chemical analysis are the quantitative methods of analysis that use, as principal measuring devices, instruments other than those employed in conventional gravimetric and volumetric determinations. The main basis for this method of analysis is the physical property of any particular element or compound being analyzed. These properties include:

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4 Analytical Chemistry - Basic Calculations

Practice to calculate the weight / volume of reagents required to prepare the following standard solutions. Preparation of Standard Solution - (1 M, 0.1 M, 1 N, 0.1 N, 0.5 N, 5%, 10%, 20%, 10 ppm, 20 ppm, 100 ppm)

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5 Analytical Chemistry - Basic Techniques

5.1 Volumetric Techniques or Titrimetric Analysis Acid Base Neutralization Reactions-Acidimetry & Alkalimetry Oxidation –Reduction Reactions-Oxidometry (Permanganometry) & Dichrometry

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6 Preparation of Primary Standard Solutions

Principle Standard solutions are the solutions of accurately known concentrations. There are two types of standard solutions viz., primary and secondary. A known quantity of the substances is dissolved in a volumetric flask and the volume is made upto the mark. Standard solutions prepared in this way are known as primary standard. This method can be used for preparation of standard solutions of substances which satisfy the following conditions.

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7 Preparation of Secondary Standard Solution of an Acid

More often, if the reagent is not a primary standard, a secondary standard solution must be prepared. The chemical is dissolved and made up or diluted to the desired concentration and then it is standardized against a primary standard or against another reliably known secondary standard solution. Such solutions are called as secondary standard solutions.

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8 Preparation of Secondary Standard Solution of a Base

Principle Equal volumes of all acids / bases containing their gram equivalent weights per litre of the solution react completely with each other.

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9 Collection and Preparation of Soil Samples for Laboratory Analysis

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers about the peculiarities of the soils and how much of fertilizers should be applied for better crop production. A composite soil, of course, can not be moved to into a laboratory. The value of the laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each soil sample needs to be a fair representative of the specific area or horizon worth sampling. If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area, pool them and sub-sample it so as to get a sample of desired size. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a profile which is typical of the soil of the surrounding area.

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10 Determination of Soil Moisture

Principle Soil moisture content is determined by drying a known quantity of soil sample in an electric oven at 105° C to 110° C and finding out the loss in weight.

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11 Determination of Bulk Density, Particle Density and Pore Space of Soil (Cylinder Method)

Bulk density is the mass per unit volume of soil including pore space. The normal range of bulk density in most soils is ranging from 1.02 to 1.80 g / cm3. The bulk density of coarse textured soils will be on the higher side while organic soils will have lower bulk density. Particle density is the mass of soil per unit volume excluding pore space. Pore space is that fraction of soil volume not occupied by solid particles. Principle The bulk density and percent pore space are determined from the apparent and true volumes of the soil measures by adding a known quantity of water to a measuring cylinder contain a weighed quantity of soil.

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12 Determination of Soil Texture (International/Robinson’s Pipette Method)

(International/Robinson’s Pipette Method) Principle This method is based on Stoke’s law. According to this law, the rate of fall of a particle in liquid is directly proportional to the square of its radius.

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13 Determination of Infiltration Rate of Soil

Principle When water is ponded inside the concentric metallic rings driven into the soil, the rate of recession (fall) of the water level, or the rate of water withdrawn from a supply source used to maintain a constant head of water on the soil surface, gives the infiltration rate of the soil. During infiltration of water into the soil, appreciable lateral movement of water may also occur. To avoid the error due to this lateral movement, two concentric rings are used. Equal heights of water are to be maintained in both the rings. The infiltration is measured in the inner ring only. The rate of water intake per unit area varies markedly with the size of the rings and the depth of the soil to which they are driven into. Infiltration rate studies are preceded by the profile, initial soil moisture and any other problems of the region in which the soil is located.

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14 Determination of Maximum Water Holding Capacity of Soil (Keen-Rackzowski/Hilgard Apparatus Method)

(Keen-Rackzowski/Hilgard Apparatus Method) Principle With the capillary rise of water, the soil immediately above a water table gets saturated. The height upto which the soil is saturated depends on the texture, structure and packing of the soil mass. The experimental technique discussed herein permits approximation of maximum water holding capacity while determining the amount of water held in the soil at the point of saturation.

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15 Estimation of Soil pH

The pH is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration or the log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration (Sorenson, 1906). Principle A glass electrode in contact with hydrogen ions of the solution acquires an electric potential which depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions. This is measured potentiometrically against some reference electrode which is usually a calomel electrode. The potential difference between glass electrode and calomel electrode is expressed in pH units. Two electrodes are used in the determination of pH. One is reference electrode which provides a standard voltage and is usually a saturated calomel electrode which has two layers of saturated solution of KCl and mixture of solid HgCl2 and Hg. The outer tube is usually 5-15 cm long, 0.5-1 cm in diameter. The mixture of solid HgCl2 + Hg paste is contained in an inner tube that is connected to the saturated KCl solution in the outer tube by means of small opening. The resistance developed by this type of electrode is 2000-3000 Ohms. The outer electrode is glass electrode that consists of a tube enclosing a lead wire made up of Ag coated with AgCl. This wire is again enclosed in a wax insulation. To the tube at the bottom is attached a glass bulb made up of a special kind of glass which is sensitive to hydrogen ions. The thickness of the glass membrane varies from 0.03 to 0.1 mm and has a resistance of 50 to 500 mega Ohms. When these electrodes are dipped in solution, the saturated solution of KCl comes out of reference through small holes and forms an invisible ionic bridge between electrodes through which current passes. The hydrogen ions are absorbed by glass electrode and depending upon the amount of hydrogen ions present in the solution, an electric potential develops between electrodes. This potential difference is measured in terms of pH units by suitable Galvanometer.

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16 Estimation of Electrical Conductivity of Soil

The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soil is a measure of soluble salts present in the soil and is expressed as millimhos/cm or dSm-1. Principle As the amount of the soluble salts in a solution increases, the electrical conductivity also increases. This electrical conductivity is measured in terms of resistance offered to the flow of current using a conductivity bridge. It is known that solutions offer some resistance to the passage of current through them, depending upon the concentration of the soluble salts present. Hence, EC is measured in terms of electrical Resistance between parallel electrodes immersed in the soil water suspension. In such a system, the solution between the electrodes becomes the electrical conductor to which the physical laws relating to resistance are applicable. The electrical resistance ‘R’ is directly proportional to the distance ‘L’ between the electrodes and inversely proportional to the cross sectional area ‘A’ of the conductor.

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17 Estimation of Organic Carbon Content of Soil [Titrimetric/ Walkley and Black (1934) Method]

[Titrimetric/ Walkley and Black (1934) Method] Introduction The role of soil organic matter, in relation to soil fertility and physical conditions, are widely recognized. The organic matter is the source of plant nutrients which are released inassimilable forms during microbial degradation. A major proportion of N (95 – 99 % of the total), P (33 – 67 % of the total) and S (75 % of the total) in soils occur in organic combinations, which mineralize to release the nutrients in inorganic forms to be used by plants. Nevertheless, it serves as a reservoir of plant nutrients, in promoting water storage, and in regulating microbial activity. The organic matter content of a soil varies from 0.344 % in very sandy arid soils to more than 86 % in Peats and Mucks. Soil organic matter contains 5 % N, and 0.5 % each of P and S, thereby, having a N:P:S ratio of 10:1:1. The organic matter content of a soil is estimated by the amount of organic carbon (C) present, as this element represents, on an average, 52 – 58 % of the organic matter, and the C:N ratio is 10 – 15. In the sub-soil, the average organic carbon amount is 36 – 44 % (40 %), and the C:N ratio is < 8. In order to find out the amount of humified organic material, the organic carbon content is multiplied by 1.724, which represents the ratio between the humus and the organic carbon (100/58) and is known as the ‘von Bemmlen factor ’. The organic matter content of soils is estimated from the organic carbon, determined by using the ‘Titrimetric method / Walkley and Black method. The Titrimetric determination, also known as the ‘wet-digestion method’ involves a rapid titration procedure for the estimation of organic carbon content of soils.

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18 Determination of Available Nitrogen in Soil [Alkaline Permanganate/Subbiah and Asija (1956) Method]

[Alkaline Permanganate / Subbiah and Asija (1956) Method] Introduction Nitrogen (N) is found in the arable horizon of the soil, mostly in organic material. In the soil solution, organic N is gradually transformed into ammoniacal (NH4 +), nitrite (NO2 –) and nitrate (NO3 –) nitrogen by microbial processes. Organic-N is, in itself, of very little use to plants, as it can not be absorbed as such. It is, therefore, necessary to estimate the different forms of mineralized or available N. The NO3 –_N and NO2 –-N together, hardly, exceed 1 % of the total N in normal soil. The available N in soil refers to a fraction of the total N which is converted into forms accessible to the plants. This constitutes, on an average, only 0.5-2.5 % (rarely 5 %) of the total N in a soil at any given time. Nitrogen is, generally, absorbed by plants as NO3 –, under oxidized environment (upland condition), and as NH4 +, under reduced condition. NO2 – is sometimes, detectable, but the amount is, generally, very small vis-a-vis NH4 + or NO3 – and, hence does not warrant its determination. The sum total of NH4 + and NO3 –- N is smaller than the total N, which becomes available to plants and the difference being attributed to the mineralization of the organic N, during the crop growth cycle.

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19 Estimation of Available Phosphorus in Soil [Bray’s Method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) – Acid Soils]

[Bray’s Method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) – Acid Soils] Introduction The term available phosphorus (P) refers to the inorganic form, occurring in the soil solution, which is almost exclusively ‘orthophosphate’. This orthophosphate occurs in several forms and combinations, and only a small fraction of the total amount present may be available to plants, which is of direct relevance in assessing the P fertility level. The phosphate concentration in solution is governed by heterogeneous equilibria in which it takes part. This situation can be represented as follows: P adsorbed in solid phase ↔ P in the soil solution ↔ P precipitated The phosphorus absorbed by plants from soil solution comes from the soil solution in which it exists as inorganic orthophosphate ions viz., H2PO4 –, HPO4 2– and PO4 3–. The most accessible ion is H2PO4 –, with the greatest activity coefficient, followed by HPO4 2–. The quantity of P accessible to the plants is influenced by a series of soil properties. The relative abundance of these ions is, however, relatively dependent on the soil pH. For soils having a pH between 4.5 and 7.5, ions of H2PO4 – as well as HPO4 2– exist in soil solution. At a pH of 7.2, H2PO4 –and HPO4 2– ions have an equal activity, and, when the pH is strongly alkaline (>8.3), ions of HPO4 2– predominate in solution. Above pH of 9.0, the trivalent ion (PO4 3–) becomes more important than H2PO4 –, but even at a pH of 12, the HPO4 2– concentration is still greater than that of PO4 3–. Soluble phosphorus may be adsorptively retained at the surface of colloidal particles. This retention is more marked when the higher amounts of clay and sesquioxides are present. Relatively, the available inorganic P tends to accumulate in its most stable state under prevailing conditions, thus, in calcareous soils, the available inorganic P would be acid-soluble, whereas, in acid soils the adsorbed P would be more available. In flooded soils, with low oxidation potential, certain forms of P, normally considered as unavailable, for example, iron and phosphate, can be regarded as available. In most soils, the main source of orthophosphate is organic matter unless, of course, direct fertilization, with soluble phosphate, has been made.

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20 Estimation of Available Potassium in Soil (Neutral Normal Ammonium Acetate Method)

(Neutral Normal Ammonium Acetate Method) Introduction The total potassium (K) content of a soil varies from 0.05 to 2.5 %. The total K is distributed in mineral form (lattice – K, 90-98 %), fixed non-exchangeable or temporarily retrograded K (1-10 %) and exchangeable plus water soluble K (1-2 %). Exchangeable K represents an average of 2 – 15 % of the sum of exchangeable bases and 1 – 3 % of the total capacity for cation exchange. The K concentration in the soil solution is on an average 0.08 – 3 meq/litre. Both water soluble and exchangeable K are most accessible to the plant. Available K can, thus be separated into that, immediately available, which is water soluble and exchangeable, and that, potentially available or fixed. The neutral normal ammonium acetate extract contains both water soluble and exchangeable K. K extraction by this extractant is considered as a suitable index of K availability in most soils, based on crop response correlation study. Thus, the K extracted by this method is equated as the available K.

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21 Estimation of Available Sulphur in Soil [Williams and Steinbergs (1959) Method]

[Williams and Steinbergs (1959) Method] Introduction Sulphur (S) occurs in numerous forms in soil, viz., sulphites, sulphates, sulphides and in organic compounds. It is considered that the most accessible form is ‘sulphate’ (SO4 2–). The organic forms of S compounds become assimilable, especially following, microbiological transformation into SO4 2–. The mineralization of organic S in a soil depends primarily upon the N:S ratio, and any SO4 2– formed may be fixed against extraction, particularly if much Fe or Ba is present or if the soil is very acid. Despite the fact that the plants absorb S almost exclusively as SO4 2–, mobility of SO4 2– in soil may not always yield satisfactory results in accordance with the time of sampling, while assessing SO4 2– availability.

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22 Determination of Lime Requirement of Soil [Shoemaker, Mc Lean and Pratt (SMP) Method, 1961]

[Shoemaker, Mc Lean and Pratt (SMP) Method, 1961] Introduction For proper plant growth, the soil should have a pH between 6.5 and 7.5, though there are certain plants which can grow satisfactorily at low pH, for example, tea, and at high pH, for example, sugar beet. In India, acid soils are located mostly in Eastern, Southern and South Central parts though some soils, at higher elevations, in North India are acidic. In order to achieve maximum yield and sustained productivity through efficient soil management practices, it is essential to lime an acid soil, as it has considerable influence on soil environment, besides correcting soil acidity. Several methods have been proposed to determine the lime requirement of acidic soils, to raise the pH around 6.5. The soil pH value alone, however, is not a good criterion for lime recommendation, because of variations in the exchange acidity of soil, and the nature of crops which may not require as high as this pH to produce maximum yield. Of these various methods proposed, the Shoemaker / SMP method was found satisfactory. The recent trend of liming is to use it as a fertilizer rather than as amendment so as not to disturb heavily the natural environment while ensuring sustained productivity.

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23 Determination of Gypsum Requirement of Soil [Schoonover (1952) Method]

[Schoonover (1952) Method] Introduction Sodic (Alkali) and Saline-Sodic soils are characterized by the presence of large amounts of sodium, as high as 15% or more, on their exchange complex. As a result of this, the pH of soils increases beyond 8.0, causing nutritional imbalances, elimination of soil organic matter, deterioration of soil physical condition, etc., besides affecting the soil biotic community. Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) is commonly used for the management of such soils, when applied in right amounts and size. Principle A given weight of soil is equilibrated with a known amount of Ca solution, and the amount of Ca, left in the solution is determined by EDTA titration. The difference between the amount of Ca added and the Ca left in the solution, gives the amount of Ca exchanged. In practice, gypsum of about 1/3 of the value, obtained by this method, is satisfactory in most cases.

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24 Identification of Some Important Rocks

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25 Identification of Some Important Minerals

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26 End Pages

Appendices APPENDIX – I Guidelines for the preparation of Standard Solution

 
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