The Fifth Deans’ Committee of Indian Council of Agricultural Research has recently revised the syllabus of B.Sc. (Hons.) Horticulture which is uniform throughout the country. The course ‘Orchard and Estate Management’ is taught in the fifth semester. The present textbook covers the entire syllabus in 13 chapters. Simple and lucid language has been used for easy understanding of the beginners. The information contained in the book has been gathered from various published sources and internet websites which are mentioned at the end of each chapter under references. Attempts have been made to provide latest information; still some valuable information might have been missed. Questions are set at the end of each chapter to assess the understanding of the students. We have tried our best to remove the errors, typographical or otherwise, from the text; still there might be some. We would highly appreciate if it is brought to our notice for rectification in next edition. We cherish the encouragement and cooperation received from our family members during preparation of the manuscript. We congratulate M/S New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi for their support and publishing in a short time.

1.1 Introduction Orchard is an area of land on which fruit trees are grown. An orchard is purposeful planting of fruit trees that is maintained for food production. It encompasses fruit or nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchard management refers to management practices planned in the fruit orchard to maximize production of high-quality fruit and increase grower profitability. Decisions on soil preparation, crop cultivars, orchard systems and designs, location and site selection, making provision for water availability, canopy management, nutrient management, orchard floor management, pest and disease management, harvesting and mechanization etc. need to be taken care of while establishing an orchard. It is easy to establish an orchard considering its features critically but difficult to manage afterwards. It needs high managerial skills and technically skilled manpower to carry out different orchard operations. Orcharding is a long-term investment. Fruit plants once planted remain committed to the land for many years. Being perennial in nature, any mistake committed during initial years of orchard planning, is very tough to rectify.

2.1 Clean Cultivation This type of cultivation is extensively followed in India. It involves regular ploughing of the land followed by removal of weeds. Tilling the orchard soil regularly provides a weed free environment in the orchard. Traditional tillage with the spade or hoe involves shallow cultivation and partial burying of weeds. Use of animals for ploughing reduces the labour cost but some superficial tree roots get damaged in ploughing. Tractor drawn tool can be used during initial years when the orchard trees are not fully grown. Branches hanging low, spreading in the inter-row spaces hinders the movements of the tractor even in widely spaced rows at maturity in most of the orchards. Under such situations small power tillers can be used. Tillage controls weeds partly through burying weeds and partly through exposing underground parts of weeds to desiccation. The land around the trunk must be cleaned separately with the help of spade as it is difficult to operate a power implement in the vicinity of the trunk. This is very instrumental in saving soil moisture. It has immense effects on the soil properties. Cleaning removes the protecting layer of vegetation and exposes the soil surface to weathering, and thus reduces the frequency of additions of organic matter to soil. Cultivation physically disturbs soil, mixing upper and lower layers. In this management system, the interspace between the trees is kept clean by tillage by removal of weeds. Clean cultivation by tillage influences the soil aggregate size and stability, porosity and pore size distribution, and the development of sub-surface layers of high bulk density (hard pans). The first change that occurs with tillage is the disruption of established soil pore continuity (Chan and Mead 1989). Organic carbon and nitrogen decline to a new equilibrium value depending on tillage intensity, cropping system and climate.

3.1 Introduction Weed is defined as an unwanted plant growing at a place where it is not desired. According to Jethro Tull, the father of Weed Science, weed is defined as the unwanted, undesirable plant, growing out of their proper place, which interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, competitive, harmful and even poisonous in nature and can grow in adverse climatic conditions. Weeds are considered major obstacle in agricultural production systems particularly in fruit crops. Weeds are a major problem to horticultural production as they take advantage of their initial slow growth rate. It has been reported that about 36-42% losses may occur due to inadequate management of weeds in apple (El-Metwally and Hafez, 2007). Fruits have a great potential but orchards are generally, infested with various types of annual, biennial and perennial weeds which compete with the fruit plants for nutrients, space, moisture, light and adversely affect growth, vigour, fruit set, flower initiation, yield, fruit quality and winter hardiness (Majek et al., 1993) and thereby directly reducing the productivity of fruit trees. Weeds also provide shelter to various pathogens by becoming an alternate or collateral host of invaded crops by a number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases. Therefore, management of weeds in all agro-ecosystems is crucial to sustain our crop productivity and to ensure the food security to the rapidly increasing population. Weed control in orchard can be usually accomplished by various methods like manual, mechanical and chemical means. Yet the conventional hand weeding is the most common method of weed control which is not only laborious but also time consuming and expensive owing to high wage rates. If fruit orchards are located in high hilly areas with small and narrow routes, it would restrict the use of machinery which is also expensive and might injure the roots and stems of the fruit trees. Gradually, manual and mechanical weed control methods are being replaced by other alternatives such as herbicides and mulches as these are easier, cheaper and less time consuming. In recent years, the use of herbicide is becoming popular among the fruit growers all over the world.

4.1 Introduction Fruit tree plantations are increasing gradually, sometimes at the expense of marginal lands. Consequently, limiting soils are now being used for crop production. Such soils are considerably constrained in terms of infiltration, retention, and transmission of water, and also regarding the salinity and/ or nutrient content. A number of agronomical techniques can be used to improve soil productivity for agricultural purposes; however, many of them are ineffective or unsustainable. Mulching techniques have emerged in recent years to address these soil constraints yielding positive results in a variety of scenarios. Zribi et al. (2015) reported the positive effects of mulches and organic amendments on soil physical properties such as increased water retention and decreased soil evaporation. Mulching is the process of covering soil around plant root area with some extraneous matter of organic or inorganic in nature with a view to insulate the plant and its roots from the effects of extreme temperature fluctuations and make conditions more favourable for growing, as well as avoid weed germination and to conserve the available soil moisture.

5.1 Introduction A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli; it is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system — it has a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body) (Rana and Rana 2011).The main aim of orchard management in tropical and sub-tropical fruits, is to increase land use efficiency by use of inter-crops, multiple crops, multi-storeyed crops systems etc. in obtaining maximum income from the available land. Apart from these, cover crops, sod culture, herbicides, minimum tillage etc. are also common. 5.1.1 Cropping Systems It is an important component of a farming system that represents a cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology, which determine their makeup.

6.1 Introduction Irrigation is the process of applying water to soil, primarily to meet the water requirement of plants. Irrigation is mostly done when rain water availability in the soil for plant is insufficient. Water from different sources like rivers, lakes, reservoirs or aquifers is pumped or flows by gravity through pipes, canals, ditches or even natural streams. Irrigating the fields enhances the quantity, quality and reliability of crop production. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, irrigation contributes to about 40% of the world’s food production on 20% of the world’s cultivated land (Bjorneberg, 2013). Though nearly 75% of the total area on the earth’s surface is occupied by water, 97.3% of the water is in oceans and seas, and only 2.47% is the fresh water. Water is a vital factor and natural resource for the growth of any living organism, and is a limiting factor for plant growth. Plants require water for their better growth and production. Where there is shortage of water, particularly during critical stages like fowering and fruiting, there can be drastic reduction in yield. Hence, the necessity of irrigation is to make up this deficiency of water.

7.1 Introduction Soil is an essential component of ecosystem sustaining all living vegetation, microorganisms, herbivores and carnivores. It is the outermost layer of the earth. It varies greatly in its physical and chemical properties which depend on its age and on the conditions (parent material, climate, topography and vegetation) under which it was formed. Processes such as leaching, weathering and microbial activity combine to make a whole range of different soil types, each of which has particular strengths and weaknesses for agricultural/ horticultural production. The materials present in the soil are mostly in three states, i.e., solid, liquid and gaseous. They differ in their percentage from soil to soil. A good soil should have 5% organic matter, 45% mineral matter, 25% air and 25% water. So, while establishing an orchard, whole soil profile should be taken into consideration. Digging a pit shows the different layers of soil profile. Usually these are same and not distinct in many areas. Inorganic materials are the major component of most soils. They consist largely of mineral particles with specific physical and chemical properties which vary depending on the parent material and conditions under which the soil was formed. It is the inorganic fraction of soils which determines soil physical properties such as texture and has a large effect on structure, density, water retention and aeration. Air and water percentage in soil vary significantly with soil texture and weather conditions. The soil texture is a property which is determined largely by the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay particles content in it. The classification of soil based on particle size is termed as textural classification of soil. As per USDA classifications, clay particle size is less than 0.002 mm, silt size varies in between 0.002 to 0.05 mm and sand size in between 0.05 to 2.0 mm. On the basis of percentage of these particles present in a soil, the type of soil can be easily determined.

8.1 Introduction Fruitfulness refers to the state where a plant is not only capable of flowering and bearing fruit but also takes these fruits to maturity. The inability to do so is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. Unfruitfulness is a major problem in many fruit crops and their varieties. It results in huge loss to growers and makes fruit cultivation less profitable. 8.2 Factors Affecting Unfruitfulness Unfruitfulness can be due to lack of balance between vegetative growth and fruiting, lack of flowering and poor fruit set, which is result of the unfavourable environment. It can also be due to heavy cropping, leading to inhibition of fruit bud production and poor crop in the following year. Sterility also leads to unfruitfulness due to impotence, incompatibility or the abortion of embryo. This unfruitfulness is one of the serious problems of many orchards and its causes need to be understood properly for effective control and obtaining economically acceptable production level. The causes of unfruitfulness can be broadly grouped into two categories: internal factors and external factors.

9.1 Introduction India is a vast country and is gifted with a variety of soils and climates. Thus, almost all kinds of fruits can be grown successfully in this country. It is a matter of great surprise that in spite of provision of adequate resources, the per capita consumption of fruits here is perhaps one of the lowest in the world. The existing orchards are not able to meet the present requirements of the country. Poor selection of planting material, haphazard plantation and poor management has made many orchards uneconomic. The term ‘Rejuvenation’ means renewal or making new or young again. As applied to the orchard tree it would mean restoring the productive capacity of the fruit trees. The meaning of ‘Rejuvenation’ according to Chamber’s dictionary is ‘to recover youth character or to grow again’. Obviously, this would apply to those plants which have attained a stage where they are no more profitable from the grower’s point of view.

10.1 Introduction In case of integrated nutrient management, all types of nutrients are supplied in the form of organic or inorganic manures and fertilizers to maintain uniform soil fertility. Continuous use of fertilizers spoils the soil structure and soil becomes unproductive in due course. Fertilizers applied along with sufficient quantities of organic manures will improve the efficiency of the fertilizers. Green manuring should be done every year or once in two years during the rainy season. Suitable bio-fertilizers should also be applied from time to time. Plants need adequate supply of sixteen essential nutrients for their normal growth and production, out of which carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) are needed in larger quantities and are referred as macro-nutrients, whereas, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl) are required in smaller quantities and thus called as micro-nutrients. An essential element is distinguished from a non-essential one on the basis of following criteria: The plant is unable to grow normally and complete its life cycle in the absence of the element. The function of the element is specific and cannot be replaced by any other element. The element plays a direct role in the metabolism of the plant.

11.1 Introduction Pest problems in fruit production has increased the cost of tree/plant protection and squeezed the profit of the fruit growers. In India, there are several existing or potential key pests for each fruit trees whose population densities must be kept at sub-economic levels to sustain higher per unit production at the farmers’ fields. During the second part of 20th century, the major emphasis was on pest control, which involved a set of actions to avoid, alternate or delay impact of pests on crops, which mainly involved pesticide application with the sole aim of eradication. Since horticultural crops like fruits are intensively cultivated that allow more inputs cost, the use of insecticides for the control of specific pests of a particular fruit crop has increased manifold during the last few decades. However, the toxic materials generated from chemical use in crop production has polluted the environment, because majority of them are not biologically degradable. They have harmed consumers’ and farmers’ health. Uses of broad-spectrum chemicals for pest control have a very negative impact on our efforts to conserve biodiversity. Because of their broad-spectrum nature of effect, it not only kills enemy insects but also useful insects like honey bees. The pest control option based on pesticide applications virtually eliminates the bee keeping activity.

12.1 Introduction Performance of an orchard mostly depends on the availability and quality of land and water resources and their management in fruit production. Before taking a decision on all the other possible alternatives under consideration, it is important to undertake feasibility study of the available resources to the orchard management. Other conditions in the growing environment, such as climate and weather conditions, disease and pest management and other factors affecting crop growth also affect production. With ever increasing population in India, today the major problem confronted in fruit cultivation is to improve or at least sustain the production to meet ever increasing demand for fresh or processed fruits. Fruit production can vary widely in response to management of available resources. India cannot afford to mismanage its natural resources (Sharma, 2012). Therefore, judicious utilization of available resources should be done. The following resource constraints are required to be judiciously handled in the management of fruit orchards: Land and Soil management Irrigation water management Solar radiation management

13.1 Introduction Climate change is emerging out to be the greatest challenge to humanity. Climate change may be a change in the mean of the various climatic parameters such as temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, atmospheric gases composition etc. and in properties over a longer period and a larger geographical area. It can also be referred to as any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or because of human activity. Climate change is a global challenge threatening sustainability of agriculture and its impact is realized more in the fragile and vulnerable ecosystems. The resource poor small and marginal farmers are more prone to climatic aberrations than other farmers. Predicted population growth over the next 50 years will raise food demand globally higher (Trostle 2008), which is complicated by environmental changes such as climate, biodiversity, water availability, land use, atmospheric and other pollutants, and sea level rise (Misselhorn et al. 2012). Climate change has emerged as a serious global environmental issue having impact on all forms of life. It increases the greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, ozone and methane which may cause impact in terms of increased temperature, more demand for water and increase in biotic and abiotic stresses. It has direct impact on agriculture and horticulture. Due to climate change, low production of horticultural crops is featured. Due to severe cold wave, horticultural crops suffer a yield loss of 10-100% depending upon crop and variety (Hazarika 2013). Mitigation strategies aim to reduce the impact of changes to climate and the associated risks from anthropogenic (human) processes. Adaptive capacity is defined as ‘‘the ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes), to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences’’ (IPCC 2001, p. 982).