eChapters

SUMMARY

Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly in rainfed, tribal, mountains and hill areas of the country. Among all farming systems, organic farming is gaining wide attention among farmers, entrepreneurs, policy makers and agricultural scientists for varied reasons such as it minimizes the dependence on chemical inputs (fertilizers; pesticides; herbicides and other agro-chemicals) thus safeguards/improves quality of resources, and it is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment and achieve long term improvements in the quality of resource base. The popularity of organic farming is gradually increasing and now organic agriculture is practiced in almost all countries of the world, and its share of agricultural land and farms is growing.

Conservation agriculture is an approach to managing agroecosystems for improved and sustained productivity, increased profits and food security while preserving and enhancing the resource base and the environment. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations defines conservation agriculture as a farming system that promotes maintenance of a permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance (i.e. no tillage), and diversification of plant species.

Agriculture is the backbone of many economies worldwide, particularly in developing countries where it is a significant source of livelihood for millions of people. However, agricultural productivity is heavily dependent on weather and climate conditions, making it one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate variability and change. The increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves further exacerbate the challenges faced by farmers, impacting crop yields, food security, and the overall sustainability of agricultural systems. To mitigate these impacts, operational agrometeorological advisories have become essential tools for farmers and agricultural stakeholders. These advisories provide critical information on weather and climate conditions, helping farmers make informed decisions on planting, harvesting, irrigation, pest management, and other agricultural practices. Traditionally, farmers have relied on indigenous knowledge and observations of natural phenomena to predict weather patterns and plan their agricultural activities. While this traditional knowledge is valuable, its limitations in the face of rapid climate change and the increasing complexity of agricultural systems necessitate the integration of modern approaches. Modern agrometeorological advisories leverage advances in meteorology, remote sensing, and information and communication technologies (ICTs) to provide more accurate and timely weather and climate information. These technologies enable the collection, analysis, and dissemination of data on various meteorological parameters, including temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation. Furthermore, the development of crop models and decision support systems (DSS) allows for the simulation of crop growth and development under different weather and climate scenarios, facilitating more precise agricultural planning and management. Despite these advancements, there remains a significant gap in effectively integrating traditional and modern approaches to agrometeorological advisories. Many modern systems overlook the value of traditional knowledge, while indigenous practices may not fully incorporate the benefits of modern technology. This disconnect can lead to advisories that are not fully tailored to the needs and contexts of local farming communities, limiting their adoption and effectiveness. This chapter outlines a research agenda aimed at bridging this gap by exploring how traditional and modern approaches can be integrated to enhance

Grapes are being grown commercially in the tropics. The region between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, which was once considered to be unsuitable for growing quality grapes (Winkler, 1962) is producing good quality grapes. Tropical countries, where grapes are grown are South–East Asia (India, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, South China and Australia), Central and South America (Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela and West Indies) and Africa (Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe). In India, about 90% of grapes are being produced in the tropical region of the peninsular states i.e. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. However, now-a-days grape is becoming popular in North India due to good income. The vines of tropical region grape are evergreen in nature and do not shed their leaves. In this condition, pruning is done twice in a year during April and September–October. But under North Indian conditions, grapes shed their leaves during winter and pruning is done in the month of February.

Abstract

With the growing awareness on the benefits of organically cultivated food, biofertilization and biocontrol by plant-associated bacteria are being used as alternatives to chemical fertilizers and conventional control methods. It therefore becomes essential to continue surveying different agroecological niches to identify plant growth promoting bacteria suitable for each microenvironment. Species belonging to the genus Enterobacter are versatile colonizers of numerous environmental niches. Several species and strains from this genus have also been routinely recovered from the rhizosphere of crops such as rice, canola, cucumber, banana, potato, corn, tomato and cotton. These isolates have been studied and shown to have beneficial effects on plant growth and protective action against phytopathogens.

One of the integral components of human and animal liveli hood is food and water without which life cannot sustain on  earth. However, due to high nutritive value of foods and ubiquitous nature of microbes, it is always at risk of microbial spoilage and contamination. World Health Organization (WHO) defined “food-borne illnesses” as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. Every consumer is at risk of food-borne illness but conversely every incidence of foodborne illness is potentially preventable. Several bacterial pathogens in particular are responsible for foodborne infections and intoxications.

Abstract

Watershed development and management programme appeared to an effective and integrated approach to manage all natural resources like land, water, vegetation, animal and human for sustainable benefit and maintaining balanced eco-system. The main principle of the programme is based on starting from its planning, making design outlay, formulation of technical works, execution and development of land along with creation of water resources developing a hydrological unit at downstream making a common drainage points for the purpose of sustainable development of agriculture. The present case study dealt with the integrated water resources management with specific guidelines to the farmers for clear understanding of installing small-scale irrigation system based on their own resources in accordance with actual land situations as well as judicious use of irrigation with adoption of water-saving technology for sustainable crop production through watershed approach. The work was carried out under National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Area (NWDPRA), one out of 21 watersheds was identified for development of rainfed agriculture with mobilization of all natural resources like soil-plant-water-animal-human to uplift socio-economic status of the farmers. 

Botanical Name: Hevea brasiliensis

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Chromosome No: 2n =36

Place of Origin: Amazon basin in Brazil

Common Name: Rubber tree, Rubber plant, Para rubber tree

11.1 Introduction

Rubber is a fast-growing tropical tree and mainly grown for the production of latex. In 1495, Columbus was the first person to report about latex. The latex was used for rub out pencil marks and this gave the product name as rubber. The latex is used for production of various rubber products. The most important application of latex rubber was initially accomplished in the 1880s when the rubber was used for making motor cars tyres. When rubber is heated with sulphur, it retains the physical properties.

1. Introduction

Packaging is the integral part and cornerstone of food processing industry. The development of food processing industry goes hand in hand with advancement of packaging technology. Packaging Institute International has defined packaging as “enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance”. Lockhart has defined packaging as “a socio-scientific discipline that operates in society to ensure the delivery of goods to the ultimate consumer of those goods in the best condition intended for their use”. Food packaging technology has came a long way from use of anything in hand for wrapping up a product to becoming a key element in product development and design.

9.1 Introduction 
Biochemical technology focuses on developing sustainable conversion of renewable materials like lignocellulosic wastes into value-added products with reduced emissions. The utilization of integrated bioprocess engineering for transforming carbon sources into diverse biotechnological products via microbial cells is an emerging field (Pais et al., 2016). Bioprocess engineering is a collection of thermodynamics, process simulation, bio-separations, microbiology, bioprocess kinetics, and systems engineering aiming for biomass conversion, biocatalysis-driven processing methods, and microbial processes. These processes can range from microscale to large-scale designs and systems (Liu et al., 2016) and generate value-added products such as biofuels like bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas (Patel et al., 2022); in pharmaceuticals (Tsopanoglou et al., 2021), probiotics (Lei et al., 2024), textiles (Bahtiyar et al., 2021), bioplastics, and biopolymers (Pathom-aree et al., 2024). Reactor design, fermentation, kinetics, and optimization are integral to bioprocess engineering. Not always but the pretreatment methods for lignocellulosic waste and its improvement should be considered for an optimized bioprocess engineering as they are the carbon source during fermentation. Pretreatment methods are physical, chemical, biological, or hybrid of any three treatments used to acquire desired products. Cost-effective and relatively slow biological pretreatment needs microorganisms to convert lignocellulosic waste into useful desired products (Abo et al., 2019). Chemical pretreatment utilizes harsh chemicals to increase biomass degradation, porosity, and solid separation but unfortunately are rarely used due to the harmful effects (Arora et al., 2018). Physical pretreatment methods utilize mechanical pressure to break down biomass but are expensive and irregular. Pretreatment for source and strain acquisition is the initial step of upstream bioprocessing followed by reaction conditions and bioreactor design (John et al., 2020). The primary part of any upstream process is to produce the desired product like enzyme followed downstream processing such as purification of the value-added product. The value-added products are developed via fermentation in equipment known as Bioreactors. Different bioreactors being utilized recently in bioprocess engineering and biorefinery are membrane bioreactors that offer high productivity, low environmental impact, and high flexibility (Akkoyunlu et al., 2024); airlift bioreactors (Hernández- Acevedo et al., 2024); fixed bed/packed bed and fluidized bed bioreactors are being utilized for their potential of reduced expenses, simpler design, enhanced temperature regulation and homogenous mixing (Srivastava et al., 2022) (Figure 10.1). Despite their high production and safety, the traditional large-scale stainless-steel vessels batch-wise are often expensive, inflexible, and have long construction times. As an alternative to the costly route, single-use equipment was introduced. Since they are pre-sterilized and are readily accessible to purchase as needed, this disposal method offers great flexibility and lower investment costs by eliminating the need for sterilization. However, there is high waste generation leading to a dent in sustainability and circular bioeconomy (Frank, 2018). The transformative step of the production system shifting from batchwise to continuous production has ultimately led to a decreased environmental footprint and prices and increased product quality and yield (Gerstweiler et al., 2021). The cost of bioprocess engineering (upstream and downstream) is dependent on factors such as types of feedstocks, fermentation types like submerged and solid-state, product types, and microbe or enzyme types (Kumar

Abstract

Microorganisms constituting the major fraction of the total biomass, are the main source of biodiversity in our planet and play an essential role in maintaining biogeochemical processes, which ultimately regulate the functioning of the Biosphere. Molecular ecological studies of microbial communities revealed that only a small fraction of total microbes in nature have been identified and characterized so far, since the majority of them are recalcitrant to cultivation. The emergence of ‘metagenomics’ have paved ways to the analysis and understanding of the genetic diversity, population structure, and ecology of complex microbial assemblages through culture – independent genomics-based approaches. The concept, metagenome, represents the total microbial genome in natural ecosystem consisting of genomes from both culturable microorganisms and viable but nonculturable bacteria. The construction and screening of metagenomic libraries in culturable bacteria constitute a valuable resource for obtaining novel microbial genes and products. Several novel enzymes and antibiotics have been identified through the metagenomic approach from many different microbial communities. This technology in the near future will provide breakthrough advances in the field of medicine, agriculture, energy production and bioremediation. This paper looks in to the various steps involved in metagenomic studies and how its potential can be utilized in the various aspects of agriculture to improve crop production and protection. The importance and role of bioinformatics in deciphering metagenomic data are also looked into.

Introduction

Rhizobia and Frankia are soil bacteria that exhibit symbiosis with their particular hosts owing to their ability to understand the intricate signals excreted by the host roots. Rhizobia exhibit symbiosis with legumes and one species member of Ulmaceae family Parasponia andersonii while actinomycetes Frankia forms the group of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in symbiosis with a large spectrum of dicot plants distributed among eight families consisting of over 24 genera and around 200 species of angiosperms (Benson and Silvester, 1993) and are collectively responsible for 15% of the biologically fixed nitrogen in the world. This Frankia-woody tree or dicotyledonous plant interaction results in evolution of the actinorhizal plants and the symbiotic interaction is described between Frankia (actino) and plant roots (rhiza).

Protein Pea, French bean, cowpea, cluster bean, amaranth and broad bean. Carbohydrates Potato, sweet potato, dry beans, yam and tapioca. Vitamin-A Carrot, palak, amaranth, pumpkin, methi and paprika Vitamin-B Garden pea and Indian bean Vitamin-C Tomato, sweet pepper, green chilli, cauliflower, knol-khol, bitter gourd, amaranth, methi, palak and cabbage. Calcium Methi, kale, beet leaf, amaranth, broccoli, onion, beet root, Indian bean, and cabbage. Potassium Sweet potato, potato, bitter gourd, raddish, dolichos, onion and green leafy vegetables. Phosphorus Garlic, garden pea, bitter gourd, broccoli, onion, leek, kale, amaranth. Iron bitter gourd, amaranth, methi, poi, beet leaf, leek and spinach

Models Definitions

In social science research a model is a tentative description of what a social process, say the communication process or a system might be like. It is a tool of explanation and analyses, very often in a diagrammatic form, to show how the various elements of a situation being studied relate to each other.

The term model can also refer to a particular process or object, which is used as a point of reference, when an attempt to explain the unknown is being made. It basically comprises involving an analogy to throw up the similarities between the phenomena to be explained and one, which is well known, i.e., the model.

The simplest definition of a model is that it is an analogue. A model is a relatively well-developed analogy. Given two objects or processes which are dissimilar in many respects, one is an analogue of the other to the extent that the physical or logical structure of one re-presents the physical or logical structure of the other.

The advantage of models in communication research is that it allows the researcher to account for different variables in different communication situations. Models only represent systems or processes. Since they are not real, they are just symbolic ways of looking at systems to help us to think about them more lucidly. Again since models do now show every part of a system, they are usually incomplete in that sense. Even those that are shown are represented only in enough detail to help us look at the processes or features in which we are interested. Models give us an idea of complicated objects or events in a general way. They enable us to see how a particular communication event fits into the general pattern. They provide a classification for an old problems, and familiar events. They help us by providing a structure of references for purposes of study. Theories are not models and the most fundamental difference between a theory and a model is that the former is an explanation whereas the latter is a representation.

Herd management practices in the handling, nutrition, milking techniques, sanitation, and housing of dairy animals play key roles in predisposing the individual animal as well as herds to diseases. The key factor influencing the reduction of health issues are the decisions made by herd managers or animal owners.In order to maximize output and profitability through disease control, herd management approaches in conjunction with a veterinarian programme can be most beneficial.

The success of a rabbitry depends heavily on the equipment and hutches used. Climate, location, and budget all play a role in determining the type of equipment needed. Before constructing the hutches, careful planning is necessary to minimize labor and ensure optimum working conditions. A clean and efficient layout should also be considered in order to provide an ideal environment for raising rabbits. With a wide range of hutch designs available, it is important to choose one that best suits the specific needs and purpose of the rabbitry.

Early postemergence: The application of herbicide after plant emergence and during the initial growth phases of crop or weed seedlings.

EC: See emulsifiable concertrate.

Ecdysial cleavage lines: Preformed lines of weakness along which the shed cuticle of the cranium splits during ecdysis; cuticle in the region of these lines lacks the exocuticle (Fig. 100).

Cross-pollinated species, or outbreeders, are highly heterozygous, heterogeneous and carry a higher mutation load than the inbreeders. Their mode of reproduction bestows upon them considerable heterozygous balance under panmitic population structure. Inbreeding such species disturbs the natural rhythm and leads to inbreeding depression. It is, therefore, essential that if selfing has created any disturbance in outbreeders, the heterozygous structure be restored. Since artificial selfing and outcrossing can be carried out in such crops at will, all breeding methodologies, even those meant for self-pollinated crops, can be used for their improvement. In fact, allogamous crops have provided opportunities for innovating breeding procedures to achieve the maximum efficiency by combining selfing and outcrossing cycles.

Thus, the classical separation of breeding procedures for self- and cross-pollinated crops has become unnecessary, particularly, for outbreeders which are amenable to selfing. Exploitation of heterosis has been the major objective in cross-pollinated crops and most breeding procedures developed earlier aimed at maximising heterosis. In later years, with better understanding of genetic structure of populations and availability of efficient biometrical methods of estimating genetic parameters, newer procedures of accumulating desirable genes have been developed. The presently available breeding procedures for cross-pollinated crops can be broadly classified under two heads: (1) Hybrid development, and (2) Population improvement. Both these methodologies, though independent, are not mutually exclusive. The steps for operating the two procedures, however, have contrasting requirements. For hybrid development, fixation of genes through cycles of selfing is necessary whereas such fixation is avoided while developing populations. As can be seen from the scheme given below, in both cases the homozygosity attained through initial selfing is converted to heterozygosity at the end of breeding programme. Irrespective of whether hybrids, synthetics or composites are being developed, great emphasis is placed on the attainment of homogeneity in the end products.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Plant parasitic nematodes are among the major soil-borne crop pests that cause significant economic losses to a wide variety of crops. They cause an estimated annual crop-yield loss of US$78 billion worldwide which warrants for effective control strategies (Sasser and Freckman, 1987). Nematodes have the greatest impact on crop productivity when they attack the roots of seedlings or young plantlets (Ploeg, 2001). Nematode feeding also creates open wounds that provide entry to a wide variety of plant-pathogenic fungi and bacteria. These microbial infections are often more economically damaging than the direct effects of nematode feeding.