eChapters

4.1 Seeding equipment

Sowing is an art of placing seeds in the soil to have good germination in the field and thereby gives better productivity. Seeding is one of the most important farm operations after soil preparation because the time of sowing and the way in which it is done decisively influence germination of the seed and growth of the seedling during its early stages. This in turn affects the subsequent time of weeding and inter-culture, harvesting and threshing and finally the yield. Seed needs an adequate supply of moisture, temperature, air and protected environment for good germination.

Crop sowing refers to broadcasting seeds on the surface of soil, placement of seeds in the soil or transplanting seedlings in the soil, under optimum conditions. The primary functions of any planting operation are to establish an optimum plant population and spacing, the ultimate goal being to obtain the maximum net return per unit area. Plant population and spacing requirements are affected by various factors such as the crop type and variety, soil type, soil fertility level, soil moisture and row spacing upon the cost and convenience of operations such as thinning, weed control etc. In order to get better returns, the right amount of seed should be placed at the right time and at a predetermined depth and spacing in the soil. Usually the depth of sowing depends upon the moisture availability and seed emergence capacity. The amount of seeds to be sown varies according to the size of seeds, percentage germination etc.

Seedling:A seedling is a very young plant that grows from a seed. When the moisture, light, and temperature conditions are correct, the seedling’s development begins with seed germination and the formation of three main parts:

1.Radicle - Embryonic root

2.Hypocotyl - Embryonic shoot

3.Cotyledons - Seed leaves.

In vegetables and annual ornamental crops where generally seed size is small they are germinated in nursery beds or in plug trays indoor (greenhouse) or outdoor(field), hardened before transplanting.

Sapling: A sapling is a young tree, say more than 1 year and less than 3 years’ old. In the life cycle of trees, a seedling converts into a sapling as the next stage of development. It is nearly one-meter tall and generally remains to be known as a sampling until its stem reaches 7 centimetre in diameter. The time period of this stage depends upon the particular species of a tree. In vegetable and annual ornamental crops seedlings generally are one month to 40 days old. Older than this, seedlings do not give better yields on transplanting. Very young seedlings exhibit larger mortality on transplanting.

Transplanting: Transplanting or replanting is the technique of moving a plant by uplifting from one location to another. From nursery beds seedlings or saplings are shifted and planted either in the field or greenhouses for commercial growing. Seedlings are uprooted if grown in soil medium. They are transplanted with growing medium. Uprooted seedlings take time to establish at a new place and face transplanting shock- time taken by roots to establish contact with the soil or growing medium.

It is said that “Success of any production system depends on the kind of seed which are sowing”. It is true for the seedlings also beacause healthy seedlings grown in a well managed nursery will decide the yield and consequently the profit.

Definition of Vegetable Nursery

A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or handling of young vegetable seedlings until they are ready for more permanent planting.

Why vegetable nursery is needed

Some vegetable crops require special cares during their early growth period. There are some vegetables with very small sized seeds. Seedlings of many seed propagated vegetable crops like, tomato, brinjal, chillies, sweet pepper, cauliflower, cabbage, knolkhol, broccoli, Brussels sprout, kale, endive, chicory, celery, lettuce, parsley, onion, etc. are first raised in the nursery beds before transplanted in the main field. Many seed propagated vegetable crops viz., okra, peas, beans, radish, carrot, beet, turnip and all the cucurbits (e.g. bitter gourd, bottle gourd, pumpkin, cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, snake gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd, etc.) are conventionally grown through direct seeding in the main field. However, many cucurbits, particularly in the early season are also grown in India using the seedlings raised in polythene packets.

The success of mechanized transplanting largely depends on the quality of seedlings used, making seedling raising an essential component of the process. This chapter revolves around the techniques and practices involved in raising seedlings that are optimized for transplanters. Proper seedling raising ensures that the plants are healthy, uniform, and robust, thereby improving the efficiency of the transplanting process and enhancing crop yields. We will explore various methods for preparing seedlings, including the use of specialized nurseries, seedling trays, and appropriate handling techniques to prevent damage. Understanding these techniques is important for achieving optimal performance from transplanters, reducing labor costs, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Transplanting is a common method for controlling weeds in wet or puddled fields. It uses less seed than direct seeding but requires significantly more labor. Additionally, transplanted crops tend to take longer to mature due to transplanting shock.
TECHNIQUES OF MANUAL TRANSPLANTING
Manual transplanting can be performed using two different methods:
Random Method
In the random method, seedlings are transplanted without maintaining a set distance or spacing between plants. While it’s difficult to establish equal distances between each hill in this method, it is crucial that the estimated distances are neither too close nor too wide. The spacing should range between 10 cm and 25 cm to ensure effective weed control through early shading from the rice canopies.

A seed consists of a plant embryo, stored food material surrounded by a seed coat. Seeds of cereals and grasses consist of embryo or germ, endosperm and the pericarp.

Seeds of legumes contain no endosperm, the bulk of the seed being made up of the two cotyledons. The cotyledons constitute the food storage portion.

The embryo of the grass seed is made of epicotyl, hypocotyl and scutellum- the single cotyledon of monocots, the epicotyl gives rise to the shoot and the hypocotyl produces the roots.

Seed is the living link between plant and progeny and biologically seed is ripe fertilized ovule and a unit of reproduction of flowering plant. Agronomically, a seed material or propagule is the living organ of crop in rudimentary form used for propogation.

Propagation Asexual Sexual Seed Stem cutting Ex: Sugarcane Grafting Rooted slips Ex: Grasses Tubers Ex: Potato Budding Corms Rhizomes Layering

Plants perpetuate / multiply either sexually or asexually. Sexual methods are through seeds and asexually through vegetative parts. Most of the crop plants produce viable seeds which are used for sowing. Those used for multiplication are called seeds and those which used for human consumption are called grains.

Seed consisting of intact embryo, stored food and seed coat which is viable and has got a capacity to germinate. Embryo has two parts:

Seed is a fertilized ripened ovule consisting of three main parts namely seed coat, endosperm and embryo which in due course gives rise to a new plant. Seed is the nucleus of life. Endosperm is the storage organ for food substance that nourishes the embryo during its development. Seed coat is the outer cover that protects or shields the embryo and endosperm.

Importance

Plants reproduce sexually by seeds and asexually by vegetative parts. Grains which are used for multiplication are called seeds while those used for human or animal consumption are called grains. Good stalks of planting materials are basic to profitable crop production. The seed or planting material largely determines the quality and quantity of the produce. A good seed or stalk of planting material is genetically satisfactory and true to type, fully developed and free from contamination, deformities, diseases and pests.

Part A

Counting of Seeds in a Seed Lot

Counting of seeds is essential in order to estimate the number of seeds required for planting in a nursery or direct sowing or where seeds are valuable and are sold or purchased on number basis. However, in practice, it is difficult to count the seeds in the entire lot. Alternately, the whole lot is weighed accurately. From the whole lot, 5-6 small seed samples of 100 g each are randomly selected. The number of seeds in these samples are counted. The average of these samples is then applied to the whole seed lot in order to calculate the number of seeds.

Seepage is the movement of water through the soil body and foundation of a hydraulic structure. In an earthen dam, uncontrolled seepage may produce excessive water loss, high pore-water pressure, slope instability, internal erosion, piping, or complete structural failure. Seepage analysis therefore determines the quantity and path of water movement and helps engineers design filters, drains, impervious cores, cut-offs, and other protective components. This chapter explains the objectives and importance of seepage analysis, Darcy’s law, permeability, seepage velocity, phreatic lines, flow nets, equipotential lines, and flow channels. It also examines seepage forces, piping conditions, exit gradients, and methods for improving dam safety.

Key Points

• Seizures are common in dogs and cats but uncommon in larger animals.

• Animal seizures can be induced by several circumstances.

• Idiopathic epilepsy is the leading cause of seizures.

• Rapidly rising core body temperature and metabolic alterations lead to fatal outcomes.

Introduction

A seizure is defined as any rapid and uncontrollable movement of the body induced by aberrant neuronal activity in the brain. Seizures are common in dogs and cats, but uncommon in larger animals. Seizures can be severe, affecting the entire body, or moderate, affecting only a section of the body. The pet may or may not be conscious or responsive, and it may urinate.

Seizures are usually brief (1-2 minutes) and self-limiting; however, some animals may experience protracted activity (more than 5 minutes). Seizures that persist longer than 3 to 5 minutes might cause serious complications such as pulmonary or brain edema. Death is caused by a sudden rise in body temperature and metabolic alterations that reach a life-threatening threshold.

INTRODUCTION

The origin of fish culture in India probably dates back to 2000 years. Possibly, fishery activity started when the human settlement moved away from the riverbanks to the hinterland. As the days went by, the Indian fish farmers practice their own indigenous technology as a common practice through natural resource management (National Commission on Agriculture, Gov. of India, 1976). The close and intimate observation of farmers through their age-old practices has developed the expertise of acquiring knowledge in aquatic ecosystem in particular. Admittedly, the multifarious knowledge and skill possessed by local people can substantially contribute to productive efforts and endeavors (Dasgupta, 1993).

Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI) Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Atit Road, Phra Nakorn, Bangkok 10200, Thailand

Selected ICT-enabled Agricultural Development Initiatives

• International Initiatives
• National Initiatives

Success Stories on Agricultural Information Systems

• South Korea’s Agricultural Information Service – A NARS Initiative
• ITC’s e-Choupal – A Private Sector Initiative

Lessons Learned on Secrets of Success

Extent of Adoption of Technology

Benefits and Impact at National and Regional Levels

Selection is an important tool for changing gene frequencies to better fit individuals for a particular purpose. It may be defined as a process in which certain individuals in a population are preferred to others for the production of the next generation. Selection is of two kinds

Buck can be mated to several does not gives many young ones. So quality of buck will be passed on to many number of young one. Choose bucks whose relatives have good commercial character performance can be known by looking at breeding record should have too well development testicle, have good growth, good healthy condition, not be too fat, good physical condition.

Best time is when animal is 2 kgs of body weight and age of 3-4 months.

It is advisable to purchase buck from good reliable source since it brings new characteristics and avoid inbreeding.

The mating of the buck of particular breed with die of another breed is cross breeding usually cross breeding has better commercial value → Hybrids which has hybrid vigour → grow faster, better litter size.

Usually breeding of 2 hybrid is not advisable because we will not be sure which hybrid characteristics will be passed on to young ones.

The back yard rabbitry has mixed breeding programme of low quality with reference to commercial characteristics. To improve back yard rabbitry, good well known breeding buck should be introduced to have better performance.

Rationally selected and contextually defined research problem is the foundation to the successful research project. If the selected research problem is not in line with the interests of the researcher, available time, resources, infrastructure & knowledge base then achieving success in research process remains highly uncertain. Consequently, in addition to hindering of professional growth of the researcher, it also results in wastage of time, money and human effort. Most importantly, it may sometimes add up incorrect knowledge into scientific base, hindering the process of scientific progress. Hence the identification of the research problem and designing the problem statement is the most important step in the research process.

21.1 Introduction

There are a number of field, vegetable, fruit and ornamental crops that are cultivated using asexual or vegetative parts such as stems, roots, modified flower etc. This is a heterogeneous group of plants and can be further categorized into four groups for ease in understanding the breeding methods applied to them. They are:

Group 1: Flowerless or Sterile

This group either does not bear flowers or if bears, they are sterile and do not set seed, e.g., ginger, mango ginger, turmeric, garlic, betel, many yams, etc.

Group 2: Apomicts

Apomixis has been reported in over 300 genera. But stable apomixis has been reported only in a few cultivated plants like meadow grass, citrus, mango, raspberry, etc.

Group 3: Flowers but Seed-Set Rare

In this group flowering takes place under specific situations but seed-set is limited, e.g., potato, sweet potato, sugarcane, etc.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The ultimate success of an orchard enterprise largely depends upon the quality and genuineness of planting materials as nursery plants are the foundation of the orchard. Fruit crops, mostly being perennial in nature, call for utmost care in selection of cultivar, quality planting material and adoption of right technology for mass multiplication of planting material. Mistakes committed during the initial establishment of orchards cannot be corrected and will cause serious damage to production and productivity. The variation of scion-wood and rootstock has great bearing on the productivity of an orchard. Thus, it is of immense importance having all plants carefully labelled or otherwise marked. Cuttings taken from the mother plant will grow to have the same genetic qualities as the original plant. This is why the plants resulting from these cuttings are called “clones”. When a stem cutting is taken from a mother plant, the piece of stem will produce new roots if it is properly hydrated. Additionally, some plants can be grown from leaf pieces, or leaf cuttings and these will produce both stems and roots.

Thus, the progeny trees are the basic component for the multiplication of fruit plants and ultimately deciding the quality and productivity of the fruit crops. Hence, it is necessary to stock the true to type and best quality progeny trees.

In asexual methods of plant propagation, plant parts are being used as propagating materials. The plant from which the plant parts are collected is known as mother plant. There is every possibility of transmission of disease or pest which is present in the mother plant to the progeny. The mother plants have to be maintained properly to obtain disease free planting materials so that multiplication of disease/pest can be prevented. Thus, there is a need for the establishment of mother plant block/scion banks.

Principle

Cloning experiments would be very difficult if we do not screen those very few cells that took up the recombinant plasmid DNA, as the transformation efficiency is very low as stated before (usually less than 1 in 10⁵ cells). Hence it is necessary that there should be a selection mechanism (i.e. conditions where cells grow if they express a gene, but die if they do not) to sort out which are transformed cells and which are not make the job easy.

A commonly used selection mechanism is antibiotic resistance. If the E. coli strain used is not resistant to the antibiotic, but the plasmid DNA contains a gene coding for resistance, then only the cells that have taken up the plasmid will be able to grow. Most commonly used plasmids contain a gene for resistance to ampicillin; only cells that have taken up the plasmid will be able to grow and form colonies.

Note: Uptake of plasmid DNA is rare; hence each group of cells visible on a plate represents the offspring of a single cell that will contain a single molecule of plasmid DNA.

Selecting and adding fish to an aquarium is a crucial process that directly affects the tank’s ecological stability, visual harmony, and long-term success. Effective fishkeeping involves more than just choosing attractive species—it requires a thoughtful understanding of each fish’s behavior, tank needs, dietary preferences, and environmental compatibility.
When choosing fish, consider the aquarium type—whether it’s a community setup, a biotope, or a species-specific tank. Factors such as tank size and water conditions (including pH, temperature, and hardness) should guide your selection. It’s essential to know which species are peaceful (like mollies, tetras, and guppies) and which are known to be aggressive or territorial (such as bettas or cichlids), and
avoid housing incompatible fish together.
Proper stocking density is vital for tank health. Overcrowding can lead to water pollution, increased stress, and disease outbreaks, while too few fish may destabilize the biological balance. The general guideline of “1 inch of fish per gallon” works for small freshwater aquariums, but must be adjusted for fish size, waste production, and swimming habits. New fish should be introduced gradually, particularly in newly cycled tanks, to avoid overloading the filtration system. Quarantining newcomers is also advised to reduce the risk of introducing illnesses.
A well-planned fish selection and stocking strategy promotes a thriving, visually appealing aquarium that is stable, easier to care for, and more enjoyable to watch.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION: COMPATIBILITY, SIZE, ACTIVITY
When choosing and stocking fish for an aquarium, it’s essential to consider compatibility, adult size, and behavioral traits. Compatibility ensures that fish can coexist peacefully, while size and activity level help prevent overcrowding and stress, contributing to a stable and healthy aquatic environment.