eChapters

6.0. Introduction

Food is the basic need of all living organisms and hence, its quality should be given top priority. Food processing involves number of unit operations for material handling and there are always chances that the food may be contaminated or adulterated. The food is said to be contaminated if food is injurious to health and contain filthy, putrid rotten odour of insect pests etc. and can affect a large number of the populations at a time and hazards may occur. However, a food is said to be adulterated if it contains any other substance which affects the nature and quality product or substance is substituted with cheaper substance. So, it is essential to set the minimum limits of the desirable characteristics required and the maximum limits of the undesirable components that the food should contain. This helps to set common standards for commodities and to prevent confusion among the consumers.

Introduction

Baking is not a new concept to us. Baking process dates thousand years back since the Paleolithic age. During those days, the baking was done by simply grinding the grains, mixed with water and baked on the hot rocks. The bread produced that time was not leavened but flat. Ancient Egyptians have the credit for development of baking between 2600-1200 BC. Roman Empire also had the popularity of the art of baking and bakeries were in existence in Europe too during Middle Age. Baking was considered a highly respected profession under the Roman Empire. The art of baking has travelled a long journey since then. The bakery and confectionary has undergone a gradual evolution with time. Great technical progress stared in the nineteenth century. Development of automatic machines reduced the task of the manual labour and because of this development the bakers could perform many more tasks with the machines. Today’s baking has a dependency on the machines. All the work is performed by the automated machines whereas the bakers only control the machine operations. The baking process has become easier, the efficiency has increased and the quality of the products has improved because of these high-tech machines. The preparation of bakery products using traditional methods has also improved over the time to minimize the energy and time consumption. Today’s consumer is very much concerned about his/her health and look for the healthy options in baked products. The trend has led to various innovative formulations for the baked products so that the health benefits may also be provided not only the calories. This chapter will discuss various advancements and trends in different types of bakery and confectionary products.

7.0. Introduction

The food safety is one of the most important of assurance system required for global expansion of trade between developed and developing countries. Assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use is known as food safety concept. It is set of conditions and measures taken during the food chain like production, processing, storage and distribution in order to ensure that, the product consumption does not represent a risk to the human health.

Organic farming system in India is not new and is being followed from ancient time. It is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for sustainable production.

Presently the farming situation urges need to develop farming techniques, which are sustainable from environmental, production, and socio-economic points of view. Modern agricultural production throughout the world does not appear to be sustainable in the long run.

Sustainable agricultural development “is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner to assure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for the present and future generations”. Such sustainable development in the agriculture, forestry and fishery sectors, conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable. Consequently these concerns imparted a way to organic farming. It is the need of the day to understand the prospects and problems of organic farming to launch a successful and flawless organic production programme in the farm environment.

There are many explanations and definitions for organic agriculture but all converge to state that it is a system that relies on ecosystem management rather than external agricultural inputs. It is a system that begins to consider potential environmental and social impacts by eliminating the use of synthetic inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, veterinary drugs, genetically modified seeds and breeds, immunity booster preservatives, additives and irradiation. These are replaced with site-specific management practices that maintain and increase long-term soil fertility and prevent pest and diseases.

6.1. Etawah Pilot Project (1948)

Started in 1948 by Mr. Albert Mayer of USA at Etawah district in UP

Funded by the Government of UP.

6.1.1. Objectives

To know the degree of productive and social improvements, through self confidence and cooperatives

To find how quickly these results could be attained

To know whether the results remain permanent even after the special pressure is withdrawn

To assess how far the results were reproductive in other places.

Introduction

Majority of the India’s population (about 70%) depend directly and indirectly on agriculture for a living, and thus, the sector must attain self-reliance for their future survival. The North Eastern Region (NER) of India comprising the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim covers a total area of 26.2 million hectare (7.97% of the India’s total geographical area). Of this area, hill and mountain region accounts for about 70% area that excludes Assam plains. The region is characterized by unique geophysical socio-cultural and environmental features. Drought and floods are the two miseries for the farmers of North Eastern Region of India (NER). The poorest people are likely to be the hardest hit by impacts of climatic factors and its change because they rely heavily on climate-sensitive sectors such as rainfed agriculture and fisheries. They are also less capable to respond due to limited human, institutional and financial capacity and have very limited ability to cope with climate impacts and adaptation options in agriculture sector to a changing hazard burden (Ngachan and Das, 2018). The NER of India is endowed with enormous water resources potential that accounts for about 34% of the country’s total water wealth. In spite of the abundant water resources, the ratio of percent irrigated area to net sown area varies from 5% in Assam to 28% in Arunachal Pradesh with an average of 10.6 % in NER. This is less than one-fourth of the national average of net irrigated area which currently stands at 43.2% (Sharma et al., 2010). The water scenario in the region is skewed and is characterized by plenty and scanty syndrome, i.e. excess water during rainy season and severe scarcity during post- and pre- monsoon season. There is wide variation of rainfall in space and time. It is projected that by 2021, an additional 15 million population will be added to the current 45 million in the region (Choudhury et al., 2012). Hence, adequate planning and management of these bountiful but most vital resources are required for overall sustainability of agriculture in NER.

India has the second largest agricultural land in the world. About 60% of rural Indian households make their living from agriculture. The agro-based industry saw a growth at a CAGR of 16.4% over FY10 to FY18. Agricultural exports from India reached US$ 38.54 billion in FY19 and in FY20 (till November 2019) US$ 22.69 billion. With many initiatives for farmers, the government aims to double farmers’ income by 2022. So, we have compiled a list of Indian Agricultural startups that are making a name and increasing their growth in quick succession.

Agriculture sector in India is suffering from a variety of problems like the use of outdated equipment, improper infrastructure, and farmers unable to access a wider range of 

Sustainable approaches to crop protection that reduce the environmental impact of chemical pesticides. This text emphasizes the efforts of global organizations like FAO to promote sustainable agriculture through various methods, include Eco-friendly alternatives for controlling plant diseases. Focusing on cultivar selection, soil fertility, and Integrated Pest Management (IPM), along with organic farming practices to reduce the reliance on chemical pesticides. The importance of border inspections to prevent the spread of quarantine pathogens. The role of forecasting models, precision farming, nanotechnology, and endotherapy in modern disease management. Use of biocontrol agents, systemic resistance inducers, gene-silencing technology, and plant nutrition to control diseases sustainably. Engaging multiple sectors to implement sustainable crop protection solutions. These efforts aim to create a more balanced and sustainable approach to agriculture, fostering resilience against plant diseases while minimizing the environmental footprint of farming practices.

Veterinarian’s primary responsibility towards patients and their owners is to establish a correct diagnosis as it is a pre-requisite for rational, effective, eco-friendly and cheap treatment. Diagnosis of a disease is the crux of health problems. An accurate and prompt diagnosis helps in deciding effective treatment options, whereas incorrect and delayed diagnosis often leads to failure in disease outcome.

Diagnosis

The word “diagnosis” is derived from the Greek word “gnosis” that means knowledge. The diagnosis is not only the identification of the disease but also of disease process correlating with clinical manifestations with an understanding of disease etiology and its influence on the structure and function of the body. In fact making diagnosis is itself a process of ascertaining the nature of the disease or disorder from its signs and symptoms differentiating it from similar looking conditions.

3.1 Integrated Insect Pests Management

1. Anar butterfly [Deudorix (Virachola) isocrates Fabricus]

Pomegranate fruit borer or pomegranate butterfly is the most widespread, polyphagous and destructive pest distributed all over India and common in Asia. Peak incidence is during the month of August in monsoon season, while it is more during November/December in winter crop. Infestation from flowering to button stage causing loss up to 50 per cent of the fruit. Adult bluish brown butterfly, female with V shaped patch on forewing. Full-grown larvae are dark brown with short hair and white patches all over the body and measures about 16 to 20mm long. The larvae bore into the pomegranate fruits soon after hatching. Once inside the fruit, larvae (approx 2cm length) feed on the flesh and seeds.  The bored hole is plugged by the last abdominal segment of the larva. When fully grown, the larva comes out by boring through the hard shell and spins a web, which ties the fruit, stalk to the main branch. Offensive smell and excreta of caterpillars coming out of the entry holes with excreta stuck around the holes. The fruits rot and drop off. The holes ultimately expose the rest of the fruit to disease, and typically rot off the tree.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the use of Computer Technology for the design of objects which are real or virtual. CAD involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.

During recent years ultrasonography has become an indispensable diagnostic modality in human and veterinary medicine because of its non-invasive nature, providing visualization of internal organs, and quick results. Birth of ultrasound took place in 1794 when an Italian biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani discovered that bats used sound waves for navigation. Since then continuous developments and advancements in the technology have made the sonography a dependable and an easily accessible diagnostic modality.

The research setting provides specific details about the location where a study is conducted. This study area typically encompasses a particular geographical region, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen according to the research requirements. The researcher must have a thorough understanding of the locality, including its communication methods, in order to effectively access all parts of the region for data collection.

In social science research, a clear comprehension of the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviours of the individuals within the study area is essential. Without this understanding, accurately conceptualizing, perceiving, and interpreting data becomes challenging. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the implications and behavioural intricacies of the local people representing a broader community in the referenced study area, researchers must have a solid grasp of these factors. Therefore, this chapter critically analyses the socio-demographic background of the residents in a rural setting.

The term “research setting” denotes the context in which research inputs and elements are absorbed, interacted with, and mutually contribute to the system’s overall performance.

The research setting is crucial because it shapes and influences the interactions of various factors and components. Therefore, conducting a study on how farmers perceive persuasive issues and other topics requires a local context that takes into account the unique natural environment, demographics, crop ecology, institutional framework, and socio-cultural factors. For example, when writing a paper about the social behaviour of chimpanzees, it is important to include details about the research setting. This may include information such as where the chimpanzees were studied (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees that were observed, whether they were part of the same social group, the geographic location, the time of the study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources such as food, water, and shelter, and any environmental factors that were present.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

During the last 30 years, India’s food production nearly doubled from 102 million tons. Almost all of this increase resulted from higher yield in all food grains rather than increase in area, particularly wheat, rice, maize and some extent in pulses and oil seed crops. This has contributed to a significant reduction in poverty from 55% to 26% (Dar, 2011). The increase in yield is the result of scientific innovations in India and other parts of the world and their adoption in India.

In 1871, the Government of India created Department of Agriculture. The impact of these departments in enhancement of crop productivity was not remarkable. Later, the Government of India established the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute in 1905 in Pusa, Bihar to enhance the agricultural research and education. Later, the headquarter of Imperial Agricultural Research Institute has been shifted to New Delhi in the year 1936. The name of the institute has been changed in 1946 as Indian Agricultural Research Institute. To boost the agricultural Research activities, Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was established in the year 1929, subsequently, the name of Imperial Council of Agricultural Research has been changed to its present form of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1946. Since then, ICAR playing significant role in all sphere of agricultural research, education and extension. A number of varieties and hybrids of different crops have been developed and released by the scientists of ICAR. To test the outcome of the agricultural research, ICAR has started All India Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects, which provide an efficient channel for multilocation testing of newly evolved strains.

ABSTRACT

North-Western Himalayas have a large area which are degraded and bouldry. Such areas are not fit for crop production. These areas are generally kept unutilized and hence are invaded by uneconomic and invasive species. These lands can be brought under production though establishment of silvipastoral system which has a potential of fodder, fuel and timber production besides conserving natural resources. The paper discusses the techniques of establishment, management and production potential of silvipasture systems in north-western Himalayas.

Cucumber, both slicing and pickling types, is one of the most popular vegetable crops of the family Cucurbitaceae. Like other cucurbitaceous crops, the cucumber also requires a warm season for commercial cultivation and has little or no tolerance to frost. Temperatures above 20°C are optimal for cucumber growth and development. Currently, its cultivars are generally classified as either pickling or slicing types, each with its own set of quality attributes. Pickling types typically have more prominent warts (tubercles) and lighter-coloured skin. They are harvested more frequently at the immature stage, when their length and diameter (LD) ratios are lower. The LD ratio for pickles typically falls within the range of 2.8 to 3.2. On the other hand, slicing cucumbers are harvested and commonly sold in lengths ranging from 12 to 25 cm, with diameters ranging from 1.5 to nearly 7.5 cm. Most slicing cucumbers have cylindrical-shaped fruit with blocky or slightly rounded ends that taper slightly from the stem to the blossom end. Generally, slicers have an LD ratio greater than 4.0, a smooth surface, and thicker skin compared to pickling types. This difference is accentuated because slicers are harvested at later stages of maturity than pickling cucumbers.

Imagine the air around us. Even though we can’t see it, air has weight. Atmospheric pressure is essentially the force exerted by the weight of the air molecules above a particular point on the Earth’s surface.
Think of it like this: Imagine you’re at the bottom of a swimming pool. The water above presses you down, and you feel that pressure. Similarly, the atmosphere, a giant ocean of air, has layers of air molecules, and their weight presses down on everything below, including us.
• Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted by the weight of the air column extending from the surface of the earth ,to the top of the atmosphere above that area
• It can be explain in simple terms like:
• Air has weight: Just like water or a pile of books, the air surrounding the Earth has mass, and thus, weight due to gravity.
• Weight creates pressure: This weight of the air presses down on the surface. The more air there is above a certain point, the greater the pressure.
• Like a stack: Imagine a stack of blankets. The blanket at the bottom has to support the weight of all the blankets above it, so it experiences more pressure. Similarly, the air at lower altitudes has the weight of all the air above pressing down on it.

Introduction

India is the largest consumer and second largest producer of sugar in the world next to Brazil. Among the sugar yielding crops like sugarcane, sugar beet, palms and sorghum, sugarcane is the second most important agro-industrial crop of the country. It is the only raw material for nearly 538 sugar mills (2014-15), producing about 28 million mt of sugar annually from a sugarcane production of 366 million tons in an area of 5.307 mh. Apart from this, it is the predominant source of potable alcohol, industrial alcohol and fuel-ethanol. In India, 35 million farmers are engaged in sugarcane cultivation and another 50 million depend on employment generated by these 538 sugar factories and other related industries using sugar. Sugarcane occupies a very prominent position in the agricultural crops of India covering large areas in UP, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar (sub tropical) and Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu (tropical). On an average, white sugar production accounts for 74% of total cane produced, 14-15% is utilized for jaggery and khandsari production and the rest is utilized for other purposes including seed.

Jaggery and khandsari, the traditional Indian sweeteners are the natural mixture of sugar and molasses. If pure clarified sugarcane juice is boiled, what is left as solid is jaggery, which contains 65-85% sucrose. Khandsari sugar is a finely granulated and crystallized which contains 94 to 98% sucrose. In the early 1930’s, nearly 2/3rd of sugarcane production was utilized to manufacture these two alternate sweeteners. With the introduction of sugar mills and their multiple growth and better standard of living and higher per capita income, the demand for sweetener has shifted to white sugar which contains purely sucrose (99.7%).

Abstract

Satellite photographs depict exciting evidence on the migratory melodrama of river systems. A study has been conduced in parts of Tamil Nadu using IRS-IA Satellite pictures, archaeology and Tamil literature, which reveals that from Pleistocene to 2700 years B.P.(Before Present) the river Cauvery flowed in a northeasterly direction from the Stanley reservoir via Chinnar, Palakkodu, Mattur, Tiruppathur (Tiruppattur), Gudiyatham (Gudiyattam), Vellore and Walajapet to meet the sea at Madras. From 2700 to 2300 years B.P., it flowed via Uttangarai and Tirukkovilur to meet the bay of Bengal near Pondicherry, over which the present-day Ponnaiyar is a misfit stream . From 2300 to 1300 year B.P. it has flowed via Erode, Tirukkampuliyur, Alagarai , Tiruchy, Kiranur and Pudukkottai meeting the sea in the region where the present-day Agniar and Ambuliar meet the sea. Subsequently, between 1600 and 1300 years B.P., the Cauvery flowed along the present-day tracts of the Vennar and Vettar, after which it seems to have flowed as the Kodamurutti, Arasalar and PalanCauvery from 1300 to 1000 years B.P. From about 900 years B.P. it flowed via Tirupurampayam (Tirupurambiyam), Achalpuram till around 750 years B.P. and then it is stabilised as the Colleroon (Kollidam). Such periods and phases of river migration as well as their implications in the search for archaeological remains are discussed in this paper.

Introduction

The digital farming solutions by various advanced tools and technologies became a prime important to see the future smart agriculture in India with enhanced productivity and farmer’s lifestyle upliftment. The agriculture industry facing challenges from farm to market by climate interfacing and energy conservations practices during farming operations. The use of innovative industry 5.0 is targeting a farming society to achieve high productivity by hardware devices like Robots, Drones, Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) working on the basis of Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), Deep Learning (DL), Big-Data, IoT and Cloud-based software tools and interactive software programs.

The use of tractors, combine harvesters, power tillers etc. like advanced machineries are practiced in present farming practices by youth farmers; however the digital tools with an automation of existing advanced farm machinery became an attraction to see human comfort. The custom operative design and development of digital tools are essentially becomes a need to innovate and exercise in finding best technologies for Indian farming society. The agricultural society spent several years and now also synthesizing an operational description for digital farming. There are several ways of opting solutions by using new digital logistic tools with software and hardware engagements. As we know agricultural production is influenced by climate, weather, soil properties, plant genetic profile, plant peripheral environment, plant protection, plant nourishing, harvesting and post harvesting like operational tasks. All such a challenging task can be handled by advanced digital tools and technologies.