eChapters

Historical background of dairy goats

Small ruminants sector plays an important role in the national economy. This enterprise is associated with social and cultural fabric of millions of resource poor farmers. Small ruminant especially goats gain importance mainly on account of their short generation intervals, higher rates of prolificacy and the ease with which they can be marketed. They are very useful in semi-arid and arid zone where they can sustain themselves on sparse vegetation and esteemed climatic conditions.
 
There are four main breeds of dairy goats commonly found in Western Country, namely, Alpine, Nubians, Saanens and Toggenburgs. They are considered to be the best milking breeds of the world. All these four breeds have recently been introduced in India for improvement of milk quality of local goats. These breeds have been improved by selection, upgrading, and the wise use of pedigree records and registration over a period of more than half a century in Europe and North America.

Several centuries ago, Father of medicine Hippocrates, has said “Let food be your medicine”. Our traditional therapies or alternative medicine effectively integrated this concept and include herbal remedies, nutritional interventions like vitamins/minerals supplementation specialized diets etc, and other techniques such as acupuncture, relaxation regimens, and homeopathic medicines. While, in modern medical science medicines are used to cure diseases which may have some inherited side effects. From the final decade of the last century, a renewed interest was seen in traditional therapies and people are thinking of integrated medicine with a focus on prevention of disease rather than its cure. In this context many terms like “dietary supplements”, “nutraceuticals” and “functional foods” were frequently used to address this issue. The term “nutraceutical” was coined from “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical” in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice, MD, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM). Nutraceutical can be defined as, “a food or part of a food, that provides health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of a disease.” However, the term nutraceutical as commonly used in marketing has no regulatory definition. There is confusion between the closely related terms nutraceuticals, functional food and dietary supplement. Kalra (2003) differentiated between these terms as: Functional food provides the body with the required amount of vitamins, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc, needed for its healthy survival. When functional food aids in the prevention and treatment of disease(s) and disorder(s) other than anemia, it is called a nutraceutical.

Introduction

“Sustainable development as a concept represents the latest step in a long evolution of public concerns with respect to both natural resources and environment”. It is defined as “development that meets the needs for the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This definition indicates that to meet their needs, the present generations have no right to overuse natural resources and the environment, which will ultimately threat the living standards of the future generations. Therefore, stewardship of both natural and human resources is of prime importance (Freenstra 1997). Advocates of sustainable development perceive that the biosphere imposes limits on economic growth, express a lack of faith in either science or technology as leading to human betterment, are extremely averse to environmental risks, support redistributive justice and egalitarian ethics, profess concern over population growth and have faith in the wisdom of human capital development, and have survival of species and protection of the environment and of minority cultures, rather economic growth per se, as goals.

Deviation from normal well being may be for various kinds involving one or more organs and exhibiting array of symptoms. Examination of animals for diagnosis of disease is strenuous process because investigator has just got to know by several means of examination. The evidences produced by owner, animal house, feed being provided supported by prevailing environment and climate are immensely helpful in accurate diagnosis. Diagnosis, of production related diseases, is more difficult because of biasness in history revealed by the owner. At the same time diagnoses of poisonings are also not easy because owner’s description about possible cause and symptoms exhibited by sick animals are vague. So careful quizzing of owner about each and every aspect of disease and animal obviously seems to be first step towards diagnosis, followed by examination of animal. Examination of environment in relation to history revealed by owner and observations drawn from the examination of animal can infer some conclusion about cause of disease. Support of laboratory examinations such as fecal test, blood test and urinalysis are important tools in disease investigation. Following steps are essential in disease diagnosis.

Introduction

A huge increase in the demand of animal production is expected in the next decades. Food and water security will be one of the other priorities for humankind in the 21st century. Over the same period the World will experience a change in the global climate that will cause shifts in local climate that will impact on local and global agriculture (Nardone et al. 2010). Global climate change is expected to alter temperature, precipitation, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and water availability in ways that will affect the productivity of crop and livestock systems (Hatfield et al. 2008). For livestock systems, climate change could affect the costs and returns of production by altering the thermal environment of animals thereby affecting animal health, reproduction, and the efficiency by which livestock convert feed into retained products (especially meat and milk).

There are six major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fibre, proteins, minerals and vitamins. Water is not a nutrient but play important role in livestock industry. These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, and proteins. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

The term minerals is used by nutritionists to refer to inorganic chemical elements, but is used by many other scientists to mean a homogeneous crystalline compounds. Mineral elements are not inert materials. Mineral elements may change valence states and are transferred from one chemical compound to another. Minerals are active participants in enzymatic reactions, have specificity of function, and are critical to life.

As an engine requires fuel to run, similarly the animal body requires food to run its vital activities. Food, after its digestion, absorption and oxidation, provides energy to the body. The energy thus obtained is utilized by the animal for maintenance, growth, reproduction and production. Hence, a good quality of food should be provided to the animal so that it may fulfil all the requirements of the animal. Food contains water, carbohydrates fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals which are essential constituents of the body and indispensable for life. Water being an essential constituent of protoplasm carries out many other important and inevitable functions in the body. Water helps the body absorb nutrients from the food and throw out wastes from body in the form of sweat and urine. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide energy to the body. Fat provides 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrate and proteins. Besides providing energy, proteins are also essential for body building, growth and repair of wear and tear of the body tissues. Vitamins protect the body against diseases and help in keeping eyes, gums, skin, teeth and bones healthy. Vitamins are required by the body in small quantities. Vitamins are essential for normal growth, health and reproduction. Prolonged deficiency of vitamins causes characteristic diseases. Minerals required in small quantities are essential for normal growth of body and maintaining good health. Skeleton system of the body contains principally Calcium and Phosphorus with small amount of Magnesium.

Introduction
 
Agricultural activity in the arid and semi-arid divided into two main components are plant production and animal production. Animal production is associated with a component of a large proportion of workers in the agricultural sector, either individually or as part of agricultural activity Integrative. The livestock are plays major role in the lives of the rural population to the availability of several important products such as meat and dairy products.

Farm animals in the arid and semi-arid depend on their feeding mainly on crop residues and natural pastures that do not meet their needs due to scarcity of resources in these regions. Such scarcity is caused by a number of factors; the most important factor is limited agricultural land devoted to cultivation of fodder crops, low rainfall and the deterioration of natural pastures. However, there are many studies in different countries suggesting the possibility of widespread exploitation of cactus as a strategic resource, especially in the areas of low rainfall and scarce feed resources (FAO 2007). Those studies recommend the use Cactus to feed cows, goats, sheep and rabbits without causing any problems to the animals’ health. In addition, it can be used as medicine and cosmetics for humans and for many other uses.

Introduction

Sheep and goats have a vital economic importance in India, inhabitant in semi-arid region and mostly rose under harsh environmental conditions (high ambient temperature, scarcity of feed and water). The arid and semi-arid regions of India are drought prone due to low and uneven rainfall.  The vegetation of arid and semi-arid tract is more acute during summer when the quality of the pastures becomes vulnerable which in turn decreases the body condition score of animals and reproductive efficiency is being compromised (Maurya et al. 2009a & 2010).  The small ruminants are widely distributed in comparison of other domesticated species. These species of livestock is also a source of employment for marginal and land-less farmers particularly in the arid and semi-arid region of India. Most of the Indian farmers have limited resources and small ruminants production offers an opportunity to alleviate financial conditions and improve living standards.

Introduction
 
Animals used for experimental research purpose, which show results resembling to human beings are known as lab animals. They are mostly used because of their small size, lesser feed and space requirement. Furthermore, they are not natural host for most of the animal / human pathogens. The laboratory animal research is conducted at universities, medical colleges, pharmaceutical companies, farms, defense establishments and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to industry. It includes basic research in the area of genetics, developmental biology, behavioural science etc., as well as applied research in the area of biomedical science, xenotransplantation and drugs including cosmetics testing. Laboratory animals are also used for education, breeding and defense research. The common laboratory animals are mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs and rabbits. However, cats, dogs, monkeys, goats, sheep, cattle, pig, horses, fishes etc. can also be utilized as laboratory animals for experimental purpose in biomedical sciences.

Bioinformatics is the study of analysis of biological data using computer programming, mathematics and statistics. Bioinformatics is the application of computer science and information technology to the field of biological sciences. Bioinformatics involves databases and information systems, web technologies, artificial intelligence and soft computing, information and computation theory, software engineering and statistics. The one of the most important achievement of bioinformatics is the human genome project which was mapped in 2001. Most of the work in this field is based on the research. Scientists make databases and develop different tools to analyze different gene expressions. Within last few decades, a number of research  in the field of molecular biology, along with advances in genomic technologies, have generated a huge number of biological information  Similar is the case in the field of animal production where many advances have occurred. The day to day advances in bioinformatics and computational science have led development in the field of animal as well as veterinary science. Bioinformatics generates new knowledge in the field of Animal Sciences, and improving & discovering new models of computation for the advanced livestock production.

Brief History

1953: discovery of the molecular structure of DNA

1961-1965: decoding of the genetic code

1977: first method developed for DNA sequencing

1980: the principle of genetic mapping by anonymous molecular markers

1987: first “automatic” DNA sequencing machine developed

1990: publication of the BLAST algorithm for the comparison of DNA sequences

Preamble

The recent advances in embryo transfer protocols have placed these techniques as widely adopted means of developing experimental models to understand complex biological processes such as feto-maternal dialogue, fetal programming and maternal effects on early development. This has noticeably widened the scope of embryo transfer programs which are now not only limited to transferring the genetically superior embryos from donors to recipients for faster genetic improvement, or as only the therapeutic tools in human medicine, but has embarked these techniques as basic research tools in biological research. It is however critical to achieve effective synchronization between donors and recipients along with optimal superovulation in donors to get more number of transferable embryos and subsequently greater conception rates of recipients. For transfer, the embryos are collected Day 6 or 7 post insemination of donors. An overall discussion of sequential steps to achieve successful embryo transfer along with recent advances in the subject area and its possible future scope is discussed in this chapter.

1. Abrus precatorices

Scientific name     :     Abrus precatorices Linn.
Common name      :     Indian Liquorices
Family      :     Fabaceae
English      :     Indian liquorices
Hindi      :     Gunj
Kannada      :     Gulaganji

Plant habitat and description : It is found in South China, the pacific island, tropical Africa, the West Indies and almost all tropical countries in moist places. In India, it occurs commonly near the ravines of miscellaneous forests, waysides, grass of localities up to 1000 m altitude and throughout warmer regions of country. It is propagated by seeds and can also be propagated by cuttings of firm shoots in sand under glass.
A much branched, perennial climber with woody stem. Leaves are paripinnate leaflets opposite, deciduous, oblong, ligulate, membranous, and glabrous or thincy silky beneath.

India is fortunate in terms of natural wealth, which is manifested in its great plants diversity. Since time immemorial medicinal plants nature hidden and to a large extent unexplored treasure has been used virtual in all human cultures around the country. The wide spread use of herbal remedies and health care preparation from commonly used traditional herb and medicinal plants as those described in ancient texts such as Vedas, the Quran and the Bible have been traced to the occurrence of natural products with medicinal properties. Ancient people used plants as purgatives, sedatives, antitussives, and to alleviate a wide range of ailments such as fever and insanity. According to WHO, 3.5 billion people in developing countries use plant based medicines for their primary health care. WHO also indicates that over 30% of the world’s plants species have at one time or another been used for medicinal purpose.
 
The people of India have been using thousands of medicinal plants for curing various diseases suggesting that Ayurveda has been widely use to maintain human health. Ancient Indian medicinal heritage is based on 7000 plant species and about 8000 herbal remedies have been codified in the Ayurveda. Plants in Ayurveda have Sanskrit names the synonyms; each plant may have synonyms ranging from five to hundred.

Disease    Prescribed test    Alternative test

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the full form of the followings : MALT, GALT and BALT
Ans.    MALT : Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue ; GALT : Gut associated lymphoid tissue ; BALT : Bronchus associated lymphoid tissue

Q.2     What is the definition of antigen ?
Ans.    Antigen is any agent capable of binding specifically to components of the immune response such as lymphocytes and antibodies.

Q.3.     What is the definition of immunogen ?
Ans.    Immunogen is any agent capable of inducing an immune response.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     How many types of polio virus are there ?
Ans.    There are 3 serotypes of polio virus namely polio virus type 1, 2 and 3.

Q.2.     Who first developed inactivated polio vaccine ?
Ans.    Jonas Salk.

Q.3.     Who first developed attenuated oral polio vaccine ?
Ans.     Sabin.

Q.4.     What are the different inactivating agents used to inactivate viruses in preparing vaccines ?
Ans.    Formaldehyde, b-propiolactone and ethylenimines.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are tumour specific transplantation antigens (TSTAs) or tumour specific antigens (TSAs) ?
Ans.     Some antigens present on the surface of malignant cells are unique to the cancerous cells and are not present on their normal counterparts. They are called tumour specific transplantation antigens (TSTAs) or tumour specific antigens (TSAs).

Q.2.     What are tumour associated antigens (TAAs) ?
Ans.    Some antigens present on the tumour cells that are not different qualitatively from those found on normal cells but are overexpressed and present in increased number on the cancer cells as products of cellular oncogenes. They are called tumour associated antigens (TAAs). Ex the high level of a growth factor receptor due

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the definition of sequestered antigens ?
Ans.     Sequestered antigens are antigens which are protected from the immune system and no immune response is generated against them. Ex lens and uveal proteins of the eye, chondrocyte antigens in cartilage and antigens of spermatozoa.

Q.2.     What is autoimmune haemolytic anaemia ?
Ans.    It is an antibody mediated autoimmune disease and antibodies are generated against self RBCs. It occurs in unmatched erythrocyte antigen in transfusion or in erythroblastosis fetalis. The antibodies developed in autoimmune haemolytic anaemia are of two types (1) warm autoantibodies (2) cold agglutinins. The warm