eChapters

The stages through which the commodity passes from harvest till consumption are considered as post harvest stages. Post harvest management is one important component of agriculture and is the key to make more food and nutrition available to people. In integrated farming system, varieties of foods are produced. However, if they are not stored properly and/or processed, there may be both quantitative and qualitative losses. The produce may be attacked by different extraneous organisms including microorganisms, birds, rodents, etc. These spoilage agents may impair the quality of food, degrade the nutritional value and even make the food unfit for consumption. Besides, value addition of the food produce is another area where the overall profitability of the farming system can be improved. Thus proper management of post harvest operations and value addition are very important.

Importance of post harvest management and value addition

It has been estimated that about 10% of the food grains and about 30-40% of the fruits and vegetables are lost every year in a country like India due to improper post harvest management and lack of value addition. New avenues to increase food production are being explored to meet the demand of growing population of the country. However, prevention of post harvest losses is one basic step that can be taken up to make more food available for the people. In addition, proper post harvest management and food processing can help in the following aspects.

Silk is a way of life in India. Over thousands of years, it has become an inseparable part of Indian culture and tradition. No ritual is complete without silk being used as a wear in some form or the other. Sericulture and Silk Textiles Industry is one of the major sub-sectors comprising the textiles sector. Sericulture is an agro-based cottage industry. Sericulture refers to the mass-scale rearing of silk producing organisms in order to obtain silk. Sericulture is an agro-based labour intensive industry. The major activities involved in a sericulture industry are:

1. Cultivation of silkworm food plants
2. Rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk
3. Reeling the cocoons for unwinding the silk filament and
4. Other post-cocoon processes such as twisting, dyeing, weaving, printing and finishing.

Introduction

Wheat is pre-eminent both in regard to its antiquity and its importance as a food of mankind in the world. In prehistoric times, it was cultivated throughout Europe and was one of the most valuable cereals of ancient Persia, Greece and Egypt. Wheat has been cultivated for several thousand years in India with the evidence of presence of wheat grains in the Mohen-Jo-Daro excavations. Till 1947, the total wheat production was only about 6 million tonnes and was not sufficient to meet the demand, leading to large scale importation of wheat. Subsequently production increased due to an increase in both total cropped and irrigated area. Wheat crop has exhibited a robust growth trend since the onset of the ‘green revolution’ in 1968. India, one of the greatest success stories of ‘green revolution’, is the second largest producer of wheat in the world after China. During 2018-19 (Fig. 1) India produced a record breaking 101.20 million tonnes of wheat from 29.62 million ha area indicating 3.42 tonnes/ha wheat yield (ICAR-IIWBR, 2019). On the other hand, India is also the second largest wheat consumer after China. Thus, wheat and its various products play an increasingly important role in managing India’s food security and India became the wheat surplus nation as against the wheat deficient nation during 1960’s. The tremendous progress in area, production and productivity of wheat to the tune of 2.9, 12.2 and 4.2 times, respectively as compared to 1950 has made India (Table 1) the member of elite group of wheat exporting countries (Workman, 2018).

Quality assurance is fundamental to producing safe, consistent, legally compliant, and commercially successful ice cream. This chapter presents a comprehensive QA framework covering supplier approval, incoming-material inspection, process monitoring, laboratory testing, microbiological control, sanitation, finished-product release, traceability, market quality, and corrective and preventive action. It explains the relationship between quality assurance, quality control, food safety, documentation, and management systems such as HACCP and ISO-based frameworks. The chapter also examines QA department structures, monthly reviews, audits, digitalization, quality culture, and performance indicators. By integrating prevention with measurement and accountability, the chapter demonstrates how effective QA can protect consumers, reduce losses, improve consistency, and strengthen profitability.

Introduction

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most versatile promising crops having wider adaptability under diverse agro-climatic conditions. Worldwide, maize is known as “Queen of cereals” because it has the maximum genetic yield potential amongst the cereals. It is cultivated on nearly 197 million ha in about 170 countries having wider diversity of climate, soil, biodiversity and management practices that contributes 36% (1135 million tonnes) of the global grain production. The United States of America (U.S.A.) is the largest producer of maize contributes nearly 33% of the total production in the world and other important growing countries are China, Brazil, India, Argentina, Indonesia, Ukraine and Mexico (Table 1).

Research and development plays a central role in innovation, product improvement, cost optimization, and competitiveness in the ice cream industry. This chapter explains the distinction between research, development, and new product development and examines the responsibilities of an R&D department. It covers formulation development, pilot and plant trials, ingredient evaluation, shelf-life studies, regulatory considerations, supplier collaboration, product costing, and commercialization. The chapter also highlights the importance of cooperation between R&D, QA, production, procurement, marketing, and finance. Key performance indicators and common mistakes are discussed to strengthen the effectiveness of R&D programmes. The chapter ultimately connects scientific innovation with manufacturing feasibility, consumer expectations, regulatory compliance, and commercial success

1.1    Cereals
    Maize
    
    1. Maize stem borer, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
    2. Asian maize borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
    3. Blister beetle, Mylabris pustulata Thunberg (Coleoptera: Meloidae)
         
    Sorghum
        
    1. Sorghum midge, Contarinia sorghicola (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)
    2. Sorghum ear head bug, Calocoris angustatus (Hemiptera: Miridae)
    3. Sorghum shoot bug, Peregrinus maidis (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)
    4. Sorghum shoot fly / stem fly, Atherigona soccata (Diptera: Anthomyiidae)
    5. Maize Stem borer, Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
    6. Other minor pests
    
    Ragi
    
    1. Pink borer, Sesamia inferens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    2. Aphids: Schizaphis graminum, Hysteroneura setariae, Rhopalosiphum maidis (Hemiptera: Aphididae)
    3. Root aphid, Tetraneura nigriabdominalis (Hemiptera: Aphididae)
    4. Other minor pests
    
    Pulses
    Black gram / green gram
    
    1.  Pod borer, Maruca testulalis (Lepidoptera: Crombidae)
    2. Hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei (Butler): (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
    3. Stem fly Ophiomyia phaseoli (Tryon) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)
    4. Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) (Diptera: Aleyrodidae)
    5. Thrips, Caliothrips indicus (Bagn.) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
    6. Green Jassid, Empoasca kerri (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)
    7. Bean bugs, Clavigralla gibbosa Spinola (Hemiptera: Coreidae), Dusky cotton bug, Oxycarenus laetus Kirby (Hemiptera: lygaeidae)
    8. Bean mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acarina: Tarsonemidae)
    9. Cut worm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel), Agrotis flammatra Schiff.(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    
    French bean (Rajmash)
    
    1. Hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
    2. Blister beetle, Mylabris pustulata (Thunberg) (Coleoptera: Meloidae)
    3. Bean fly Ophiomyia phaseoli (Tryon) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)
    4. Bean thrips, Megalurothrips distalis (Karny) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
    5. Cut worm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel), Agrotis flammatra Schiff.(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    6. Bean mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acarina: Tarsonemidae)
    
    Oilseeds
    Til (Sesame)
    
    1. Hairy Caterpillar, Amsacta moorei (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
    2. Leaf hopper: Orosius albicinctus Distant (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)
    3. Aphids
    4. White flies, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)
    5. Leaf webber or roller and capsule borer, Antigastra catalaunalis Duponchel (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)
    6. Gall fly: Asphondylia sesame Felt (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)
    7. Sphinx moth or Dead head moth: Acherontia styx (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)
    
    Polyphagous Pests
    
    1. White grub Holotrichia consanguinea Blanchard (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
    2. Rodents

Insect and non-insect pests cause extensive damage to standing crops, stored grains and stored products resulting in huge economic loss. Besides these, several pests cause annoyance, as well as attack livestock such as, cattle, poultry and pet animals. Some others damage household articles such as, clothing, upholstery, carpets, paper, books, leather articles, wooden and bamboo furniture and all sorts of wooden structures. These obnoxious creatures besides consuming any kind of food materials, spoil them by contaminating and polluting them with their faecal matter and urine and impart a repulsive, bad odor and make them unfit for consumption by humans and livestock. The damages caused by them pave the way for easy access and infection by some of the saprophytic microorganisms, which hasten the deterioration process. A few of these microorganisms produce mycotoxins, which are poisonous and may even be fatal to the consumers.

Among the household pests, cockroaches, crickets, silver fish, ants, white ants, carpet and powder post beetles and clothes moths are quite important. These insects not only cause annoyance but different types of flies, mosquitoes, bugs, fleas and lice either suck and feed on the blood from humans, cattle, poultry etc. but are also responsible for disseminating several disease causing microorganisms.

Cleaning and sanitation are essential for maintaining microbiological safety in ice cream manufacturing, particularly because contamination can occur after pasteurization and freezing does not eliminate all microorganisms. This chapter explains contamination routes, hygienic zoning, cleaning systems, sanitization practices, HACCP principles, and microbiological expectations within an ice cream plant. It examines CIP and COP systems, detergent components, cleaning factors, high-risk equipment and surfaces, and post-pasteurization contamination control. Particular emphasis is placed on preventing biofilms and controlling contamination at filling equipment, tanks, pipelines, feeders, drains, packaging areas, and personnel interfaces. The chapter provides practical sanitation guidance to support food safety, product stability, regulatory compliance, and consumer protection

Nitrogen is the most important element on which depends growth and productivity of plants. It is also the most abundant molecule in the atmosphere (80%), yet it cannot be utilized by plants. The plant utilizable form of nitrogen is either, its most oxidized form, the nitrates or the most reduced state, the ammonia.  The indiscriminate use of nitrogenous fertilizers amounts to depletion of non-renewable fossil fuels used in fertilizer production. Sustainable agriculture depends largely on renewable resources and on-farm nitrogen contributions are achieved largely through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), which helps in maintaining and/or improving soil fertility by using atmospheric nitrogen. Annually BNF is estimated to be around 175 million tonnes of which close to 79% is accounted for by terrestrial fixation.

Soil Colloids A colloid, also known as colloidal solution or colloidal system, is a mixture in which finely divided particles (less than 1µm in size) known as dispersed phase are suspended in a medium, called dispersion medium. The particles must be dispersed in a medium and both the dispersed phase and dispersion medium may be solid, liquid or gaseous which leads to numbers of possible colloidal systems. In soil, the clay fraction (< 2µm in size) together with finer fractions of some organic matter forms the composition in a state of colloidal nature, known as soil colloids. The soil solids as dispersed phase predominates in the dispersion medium (soil solution). As such, colloids in a soil are referred to as ‘sol’. Clay colloids display the most reactive fractions of soil governing their distinct properties such as adsorption and exchange of ions, zeta potential, flocculation and other electrokinetic phenomenon.

Causes and Mechanism
I. External Causes/ Extrinsic Causes
1. Physical Causes
1. Trauma by cutting objects and blunt objects
2. Electrical – Lightning, high frequency current
3. Heat -Sun stroke, burns, fever
4. Cold Local tissue freezing, cold shock
5. Radiation
UV / X /cosmic radiations
6. Pressure
Increased or decreased pressure

Introduction

The proteome is often described as the set of all expressed proteins in a cell, tissue or organism. It is the systematic analysis of cellular proteins, that is, their identity, quantity and function. One advantage of proteomics over transcriptome is that mRNA represents an early stage of gene expression whereas the study at the proteome level describes the state of protein which is the final functional molecule of the cell. Thus, it gives a clear picture of the cell function that may not be concluded from mRNA study. In fact we can say that proteins are more than just information carriers so it gives more information with respect to only nucleic acid based studies.  Proteomics covers two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE), image analysis, mass spectrometry, amino acid sequencing, and bio-informatics to resolve comprehensively, to quantify, and to characterize proteins. Biomarker discovery as an important aspect of proteomics technology is highly appreciable when it comes to diseases. Today,  a better understanding of the disease mechanisms leading to discovery of new disease specific biomarkers are very much possible due to the sequencing of the human genome. It has accelerated the proteomic technologies for accepting the challenges so as to meet the diseased related investigations.

A large number of herbicides are currently available in the market hence selection of suitable herbicide needs judicious understanding of the product and the requirement. When large number of chemical options are available it can make the process of selection a bit confusing. So it is important to know the crops in which a herbicide can be used, the weeds it will control, the appropriate rate, adjuvants included in the formulation. The different uses of the chemical and the different situations for which it will be useful. In addition to these it is important to understand the mode of action of the herbicide and also the mechanism of action of the chemical.

Abstract

Biological Pathways represent system level sophistication of organisms. An exclusive peek into the extent of sophistication of an organism may provide proof of its past evolutionary struggle and position in the developmental trend from pathway point of view. This knowledge may not align with the traditional universally acknowledged standard 16s rRNA trend. Analyzing the reasons behind such discrepancy can constitute an important research work. To map sophistication of one organism with respect to other organisms, phylogeny is required. Here, we are mapping the level of sophistication in terms of enzymes among a set of TCA cycles belonging to different species, arbitrarily chosen from the KEGG/PATHWAY database. For this purpose, we converted the metabolic pathway information into simplified enzyme-enzyme relational (E-E-R) graphs. Similarity scores obtained from inter-genus, intra-genus as well as inter-species comparison of these graphs are used for phylogenetic tree construction. These phylogenetic trees throw light on the trend of development of metabolic pathways among different species. But peculiarly, these trees have less similarity with the conventional evolutionary phylogenetic trees constructed from NCBI taxonomy data. In this paper, we have tried to find some justifications for this dissimilarity among phylogenetic trees, by considering their habitats.

Pathogenesis of heart failure in animals and humans is a complex phenomenon. The major abnormality in heart failure is myocardial contractility failure, disturbances in rhythm and rate of the heart, disturbances of pre load and after load, forward failure, backward failure, fluid accumulation, RAAS activation, hypoperfusion of organs, oxidative stress, activation of proinflammatory cytokines etc.

Agrobiodiversity is a key resource for humanity. All of the food retirements humanity depends on are fulfilled by agrobiodiversity. Not only this, fodder, fiber, firewood, and many other basic needs of humankind are also met by agrobiodiversity. Human’s dependence on agriculture - not only for survival and sustenance but also for socioeconomic progress, maintenance and celebration of cultural ethos, physical, intellectual, emotional, ethical, and aesthetic development, and psychological contentment and happiness - is inevitable.

Agrobiodiversity is critical for food security for the entire humanity as well as for the food sovereignty of a country. If we are to usher in a sustainable future - that is, a future to be witnessed by healthy, vibrant, and happy humanity (Singh 2019) - there is no choice other than protecting, conserving, and augmenting agrobiodiversity.

Abstract

Thermophiles mainly harbor in highly temperate environments such as hydrothermal vents, hot springs, fumaroles etc. The main importance of thermophiles is due to their thermostable proteins, enzymes and their adaptive mechanisms at higher temperature which are very useful for industrial applications. The main rationale behind this research was to isolate industrially important thermophilic bacteria from the Hot Springs of Sikkim which can be used as tools for genetic engineering and vector based research activities.