eChapters

To address the present day problems in agriculture and horticultural sectors and also to equip the graduating and postgraduate agricultural students, the ICAR has been continuously striving to bring necessary reforms for quality enhancement in agricultural education. The Council has appointed National Core Group and BSMA Committee for revision and restructuring of Post graduate and Doctoral syllabi in consultation with all the stakeholders to meet the challenges and harness opportunities in various disciplines of agriculture and allied sciences. It has been felt that a paradigm shift is necessary in academic regulations to comply with various provisions of National Education Policy-2020. The syllabus of Masters’ and Doctoral programs was restructured and new courses were introduced.

Principle

Restriction digestion is one of the most common reactions performed in molecular biology. Restriction endonucleases (RE) are also known as restriction enzymes, which recognize short, specific DNA sequences. There are three types of RE: Type-I, Type-II and Type-III. Type II RE, most commonly used for DNA analysis and genetic engineering, cleave double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) at specific sites within or adjacent to their recognition sequences. All Type II RE recognises a unique nucleotide sequence at which it cuts a DNA molecule and nowhere else. The recognition sequence is often a six base pair palindromic sequence (the top DNA strand from 5' to 3' is the same as the bottom DNA strand from 5' to 3'), but others recognize four or even eight base pair sequences. Many RE will not cut DNA that is methylated on one or both strands of the recognition site, although some require substrate methylation.

REs can also differ in the way they cut the DNA molecule. Some enzymes cut in the middle of the recognition sequence, resulting in a flush or “blunt end”. Other enzymes cleave in a staggered fashion, resulting in DNA products that have short single-stranded overhangs (usually two or four nucleotides) at each end. These are often called “cohesive ends”, as these single-stranded overhangs could potentially come together again through complementary base-pairing, as shown below:

The objective of correct pesticide application cannot be achieved without good quality Plant Protection Equipment. A sound designed machine shall be proficient as far as pesticide distribution and delivery to the target in minimum time with least wastages is concerned. Hence, the machines should be tested to ascertain that they are:

ABSTRACT

In vitro culture induced genetic variation constitutes an important source of variability for the improvement in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Hence attempts were made to standardize indirect method of in vitro plantlet regeneration in ginger using various explants like sprouted bud, shoot tip, leaf and pseudo stem. Explants from two cultivars of ginger viz. Maran and Rio-de-janeiro were cultured in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with various levels of 2,4-D and in combination with different levels of BA. Cultures were incubated under two different culture conditions viz. light and dark. Callusing was observed in all the explants except mature leaf in MS medium supplemented with 2,4- D alone (1 - 2 mg l^-1) and in combination with BAP (0.5 - 3.0 mg l^-1). Shoot morphogenesis was achieved from one month old calli in MS medium supplemented with BAP (3.0 mg l^-1). Regenerated shoots were subcultured to medium of same composition for further shoot proliferation and rooting. Plantlets produced were hardened and planted out. From the present investigation, highly efficient protocol for indirect organogenesis in ginger could be developed and the response of two cultivars at various stages of morphogenesis could be studied in detail.

Introduction

It is necessary to ascertain the quality of irrigation water so as to gauge the possible effects of this water on the soil. The irrigation water often results in water logging, salinity and alkalinity problems. It is therefore very important to know its quality. Following are the basic criteria or characteristics on which irrigation water quality is judged.

1. Presence of total soluble salts in irrigation water.
2. Proportion of carbonates and bicarbonates in relation to calcium and magnesium in irrigation water.
3. Proportion of sodium in relation to other cations in irrigation water.
4. Concentration of specific ions in irrigation water.

Several parameters are employed to judge the quality of irrigation waters No parameter in complete in judging the quality of irrigation water. Further the quality of water should be judged by considering the crop and soil factors. Any judgment without considering the above factors may not be useful. Researchers devised many parameters by following above said criteria. Some of the commonly adopted parameters used to judge the quality of irrigation water are:

Hedge

When shrub is planted on boundary for fencing, it is also called as hedge. In other word shrubs or trees planted at regular intervals to form a continuous screen is called a hedge. It may be ornamental or protective or both. Hedge also become an important feature of formal layout to serve various function as screening of the area out building, tennis court, vegetable garden, hardening of unwanted place etc. All the shrubs cannot be planted for making an ideal hedge due to different nature of growth.

This chapter deals with equipment and machineries that are used in certain specific operations/ areas.

25.1. Lac cultivation

High-capacity scraper cum grader, scraper cum grader

25.2. Mushroom production

Grain Cleaner, Grain boiler, Boiled grain and Chalk powder mixer, Bag/bottle filler, Spawn inoculators, Substrate mixer - manually operated

Radiation combined injury (RCI) is complex condition that arises from simultaneous exposure to ionizing radiation and other types of physical trauma, such as blunt force injuries, thermal burns, or chemical exposure. This combination significantly complicates diagnosis and treatment, leading to increased morbidity and mortality. The past experiences of Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Chernobyl have revealed that a large fraction of victims of such nuclear accidents or attacks suffer from combined radiation injuries. The possibility of a nuclear attack seems very far-fetched, but the destruction that would occur in such events will be massive, with a huge loss in terms of lives. Therefore, preparedness for the same should be done beforehand. Ionizing radiation damages cellular structures, primarily through direct ionization of DNA, leading to a range of acute and chronic health effects.

The severity of radiation damage is influenced by the dose, type of radiation, and duration of exposure. Simultaneously, traumatic injuries can result from various mechanisms such as combat, accidents, explosions that may involve blunt trauma, lacerations, or burns. These injuries can lead to significant blood loss, organ failure, and infections, which may be aggravated by the immune suppression caused by radiation exposure. The interaction between radiation effects and traumatic injuries can create a unique clinical challenge, as each type of injury can exacerbate the other’s impact on the body. The pathophysiology and prognosis of RCI are more intricate and challenging to manage compared to simple burns, wound or radiation injuries. Although RCI is uncommon, it poses significant risks during unfortunate events like nuclear or radiological terrorist attacks and nuclear accidents. Historical nuclear incidents have shown that 65-70% of victims experienced varying degrees of thermal burns and other traumatic injuries alongside radiation exposure. These victims often sustain damage to nearly every organ system, particularly the gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, neurological, and hematopoietic systems, all crucial for survival.

Principle

Since the entire DNA sequence of the bacteriophage is known, we know exactly where a restriction enzyme will cleave the viral DNA and the size of the DNA fragments generated. This restriction enzyme digest will create a pattern of specific DNA fragments that will serves as a “DNA ladder”.

1. Botanical Name : Rhus semialata Murr

2. Family : Anacardiaceae

3. Common Name : Chinese Sumac, Chinese gall, Nutgall tree

4. Name in Indian languages

Tatri (Hindi), Heimaang (Manipuri), Bhaki amilo, Chuk Amilo, Dudhe Bhalaayo, Bhangil (Nepali), Sohmad/ Sohmluh (Khasi), Sohsama (Pnar).

5. Description

It is a deciduous shrub or small tree with an open, spreading crown. It usually grows up to 12 metres tall. The trunk can be 6-18cm in diameter. The plant has an extensive root system and spreads by means of suckers, often forming thickets. The tree has edible fruits. It has several having medicinal properties. It is good source of tannins and dye. Fruits are gathered from the wild and mainly used locally. Galls produced as a result of insect activity on the plant are widely used medicinally in East Asia.

Garden Walls : A garden lover will never like to block the view of his garden by putting a wall along its periphery. A garden as it is enjoyed from inside should also be visible from outside.

• Low brick or concrete or stone wall of say 60-90 cm height and to put over it some grills.
• Alternatively walls from 1.8-5.0 m may also be erected depending upon the size of garden.
• One may grow creepers such as Ficus repens over the wall.

Flower Beds: The most essential criterion of a flower beds is display the flowers in the best way possible. It may be born in mind that flowers look best when massed in a bed. The flower beds are of special importance under condition of the plains of India since they can be kept planted throughout the year unlike those in England or other parts of Europe where nothing can be grown in the open between November-March. Annuals and herbaceous, perennial flowers, flowering plants are grown in flower beds to provide massing effect of different colours borders is continuous beds of more length than width containing plant of one kind only.

3.1. Land use classification

3.1.1. Classes

Capability class is the broadest category in the land capability classification system.

Class codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are used to represent both irrigated and non-irrigated land capability classes.

Class 1: Soils have slight limitations that restrict their use.

Class 2: Soils have moderate limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require moderate conservation practices.

Class 3: Soils have severe limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require special conservation practices or both.

An anomaly characterized by numerous leaves, short petioles and small laminae that offer a bushy appearance known as bushiness to some gerbera cultivars. The nodes are not clearly differentiated and no elongation of the internode is seen.

Observation recording: To know the suitability of the tree species for plantation of various problematic areas, students are advised to visit the various nearby problematic sites or forest and record the naturally growing tree species.

Let’s dive deeper into the processes of condensation and explore each in more detail:
• Adiabatic Processes: Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands, reducing its temperature (Fig. 10.1). This process can lead to condensation and cloud formation. There are several ways air can rise and cool adiabatically:
• Orographic Lift: When air is forced to rise over a mountain or hill, it cools, and condensation occurs, resulting in clouds and precipitation. This is why mountainous regions often experience more rainfall than surrounding are as.
• Frontal Lift: When two air masses with different temperatures and humidity levels meet, the warmer air is forced to rise, cool,
and condense, forming clouds and precipitation. This can lead to significant weather changes, such as the formation of fronts and lowpressure systems.
• Convection: When the sun heats the ground, it warms the air closest to the surface, causing it to rise and cool, leading to condensation and cloud formation. This process can lead to the development of cumulus clouds, thunderstorms, and other types of convective weather.
• Non-Adiabatic Processes: Non-adiabatic cooling occurs when air cools without rising. There are several ways this can happen:
• Radiation Cooling: When the ground rapidly loses heat by radiation, the air above it cools, and condensation occurs, forming dew, frost, or fog. This process typically occurs overnight, especially in clear skies and calm conditions.

The communication system provides the forecaster with a large mass of figures; the next step is to put them into a suitable form for study. This is done by plotting the observations on a large outline map which in popular term is called a “Weather map” technically a “Synoptic chart” simplified synoptic charts appear in some newspaper.

A chart or map on which meteorological data presented and analysed is called a synoptic chart. Synoptic means having the same view point. The representation of the meteorological data in synoptic chart are atmospheric wind, temperature, pressure, cloud, precipitation, dew point etc., over a long area at a given local standard times.

Fill in the blanks

    Q.1.    ---------- and -------------- are the synonyms of mastitis of sheep.
    Ans.    Bluebag, garget
    Q.2.    In gangrenous mastitis, besides Staphylococcus aureus, ----------- organism may also be involved.
    Ans.    Clostridium perfringens A
Answer the followings

    Q.1.    What are the characteristic symptoms of mastitis in sheep?
    Ans.    The important symptoms include severe necrotizing inflammation of mammary gland, severe systemic reaction and reduced milk production
    Q.2.    Classify the sheep mastitis based on etiology and clinical symptoms.
    Ans.    a) Gangrenous mastitis by Staphylococcus aurcus mastitis b) Herd mastitis by Pasteurella hemolytica
    Q.3.    When the risk of mastitis in sheep is high?
    Ans.    During summer month between parturition and weaning

27.1. What?

Seed drills are designed to sow seeds at the recommended seed rate with precision and at the desired depth. Proper adjustments are made to the seed metering system to ensure efficient use of seed drills. This aspect is vital to have a good crop stand.

The seed size varies between crop and their varieties. In addition, the seed metering systems are based on volume displacement. Therefore, if one lot of seeds varies in size and weight from another, two different amounts or number of seeds will be metered if the drill setting is not changed. For this reason, metering systems should be calibrated each time when put to use.

The method of calibration will be given in detail in the manual provided along with the seed drill.

Flowsheet

Based on various experimentations concerning live fish transportation, a flow sheet may be prepared as:

Evaluation of the health status of the fishes purchased from the market to be packed for transportation. Serrated operculum and spiny fins, if any (as in Anabas testudineus) is serrated as it damages the packing materials. The trimmed fishes are treated with antibiotics and left for a week for wound healing.

In the case of abroad transportation of fish, clearance to the fitness of fishes is made available from a veterinary doctor/inspector. A no-objection certificate is also obtained from the office of the Marine Products Export Organization.

Proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories for the determination of oxygen uptake of fishes as well as all the other steps of fish transportation in this pandemic of COVID-19.

Determination of oxygen requirement of the fish in terms of per hour and per unit body weight is essential. In the case of air-breathing fishes to be packed (Like Channa punctatus, Anabas testudineus, Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis), determination of aerial and aquatic oxygen requirement of the fishes is essential. The oxygen requirement of oxygen was estimated from the calculated values of intercept (=a) and slope (=b). For this calculation, a relationship of aW^b is applied.

Identify main reasons and purpose of curriculum development and key areas needed by stakeholders for curriculum change. This can be done by adopting participatory methods like Focus group discussion/ field level workshops. Carry out stakeholder analysis and identify specific potential areas suggested by stakeholders to be included in the curriculum for better performance at the f ield level and their likely role in the process. In order to encourage greater stakeholder involvement invite stakeholders such as staff and students from various farm universities, field extension workers and farmers.