eChapters

Section-A : Write True / False

10.1.1 Normal Distribution

Q.1 A r.v. X is said to have a normal distribution with parameters (μ, σ²) if its p.d.f. is given by the probability law

16.1 OOP in python

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming language model which organized object and data.

16.1.1 What is Encapsulation

If same variable is reapet in two different palce then which problem is solved using encapsulation it means one variable is making private otherwise program generate error.

16.1.2 Abstraction

Abstraction in Python is the process of hiding the real implementation of an application from the user and emphasizing only on usage of it. For example, consider you have bought a new electronic gadget. Along with the gadget, you get a user guide, instructing how to use the application, but this user guide has no info regarding the internal working of the gadget.

Another example is, when you use TV remote, you do not know how pressing a key in the remote changes the channel internally on the TV. You just know that pressing + volume key will increase the volume.

Introduction

Dough is a complex mixture of flour constituents, water, salt and other ingredients depending upon the requirements of end-products. It is the principal intermediate stage in the transformation of wheat into different end-use products. Rheological properties of dough determine the behaviour of dough during mixing, rounding and molding used in making different products and also effect on the quality of finished product. Therefore, understanding the various features of dough rheology and their relations with product quality is important. The importance is enhanced further because of mechanization and automation of baking industry. Dough is composed of continuous phase in which gas cells are dispersed. The continuous phase is called “dough phase”. It consists of starch granules embedded in protein matrix along with some lipids, cell remnants and yeast cells in fermented dough. Gas production and retention is the most comprehensive quality requirements of the dough for bread making. The ability of the wheat dough to retain gas during fermentation and oven rise is unique. This depends on the ability of the dough to be stretched into thin membranes because of protein phase.

Renewable energy sources, are the sources of power that quickly replenish and which can be used again and again. For this reason they are sometimes called energy resources. The main sources of renewable energy and their advantages and disadvantages are :

Solar
Energy from sunlight is captured in solar panels and converted into electricity.  Potentially it is an infinite source of energy supply, but the solar panels are costly.

Introduction

With the growing population of the country and the increasing requirements for f ish protein, the need for sustainable development of the post-harvest fisheries sector is now felt much more than ever before. Fish and fishery products serve as a part of a balanced diet because fish is known to be an excellent source of proteins, essential fatty acids, vitamin D, vitamin B12, and many useful trace elements such as selenium and iodine. Especially, Omega-3(n-3) fatty acids such as DHA and EPA are plenty in fish, contribute significantly for the functioning of vital organs viz heart, brain, immune and reproductive systems. Over the years the demand for fish is on the rise all over the world due to such health benefits.

The harvest and post-harvest handling, processing and distribution of fish provide livelihood for millions of people as well as provide valuable foreign exchange earnings. India’s scale, its large and growing population and its over 500 million strong labour force pose a daunting challenge to job creation. The rising population in India is also accompanied by the rise of unemployment in all the sectors. Indian economy is also being hampered due to this problem. Meanwhile, it is also not possible for any government to create job for all. Probably, the solution of this burning problem is to encourage and support entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is a dynamic process of creating incremental wealth and impact, and entrepreneurs are people that notice opportunities and take the initiative to mobilize resources to make new goods and services. Over the years, entrepreneurship has played a vital role in shaping the Indian economy, and it is set to play an even more important role in the future. Startups and small businesses are often more nimble and able to adapt to changing market conditions, which allows them to bring new products and services to market more quickly. The government has introduced a number of programs and initiatives aimed at promoting entrepreneurship, such as the Start-Up India program and the Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana.

Introduction

Wheat is the most important cereal crop to the human kind. It is the main source of energy and nutrition in human diet. Wheat is consumed in the form of large number of end products as chapati, bread, biscuit, cakes, pretzels, noodles and pasta products. Millions of people are involved in milling, baking and pasta products industry with huge turnover per annum. However, each end-use product of wheat has it’s own specific requirement for example basically hard wheats along with strong gluten and high protein content are used for bead making. Soft wheat with weak gluten and low protein content are required for biscuit making Souza et al. (1994). Durum (tetraploid) wheat is used for pasta products as macaroni, vermicelli and spheghatti and Dicoccum for therapeautic purposes. Often chemical improvers are used to improve the dough properties for these products. Most of these chemicals have been banned because of their toxic effects. Therefore, only alternative is to develop varieties suited to meet the requirements of these end-use products. This needs better understanding of molecular basis of grain quality to accelerate breeding for producing wheat varieties for each end-use product separately. Storage proteins are the major component of grain which determines end-product quality. In this chapter detailed structure, genetics and functionality of gluten proteins are described.

Fresh fruits are an important component of our diet since they provide essential nutrients like minerals and vitamins and are often attractive to the consumer because of their taste, texture, colour, aroma and flavour. Fruits of different species are botanically different, and they may be derived from various parts of the flower, including the pericarp, mesocarp and receptacle. Growth of fruit tissues is initiated shortly after fertilization and accompanied by the accumulation of food reserves donated by the parent plant. Fruit ripening corresponds to a number of physiological, structural and biochemical changes, which make the fruit attractive to the consumers. These changes include physical changes, viz. the changes in colour, texture, taste, aroma and flavour, and the metabolic changes such as changes in the level of enzymes and gene expression. The varieties of mechanism, which exist in different fruits to bring about a series of these changes to make them attractive for consumption, have been summarized in Table 9.1.

Because of the variety of ways in which these quality attributes are generated, there are significant differences existing in enzymes involved in ripening of different types of fruit. Once initiated, these physiological and biochemical modifications continue until the fruit is in peak condition for consumption. If the fruits are not harvested at appropriate stage of maturity, these changes continue and make them more susceptible to mechanical damage, infection and senescence. Since harvesting fruits at right stage of their maturity is critical, it is important to understand the biochemistry of fruit ripening process fully. This chapter will highlight the biochemical and metabolic changes involved during fruit ripening to make the fruit acceptable for potential consumers. Some of the possible genetic manipulations, which can be done to delay the onset of these ripening related changes, are given in later part of the chapter.

Introduction

The health and wellness continue to drive growth in the global food industry as the consumers are constantly looking for the foods, beverages and other dietary solutions that will help them more aggressively to meet their own unique nutrition and personal health goals. Worldwide countries are going through a nutritional transition and are now affected by double burden of problems like nutritional and food security. The common alarming problems are under nutrition and specific nutrient deficiencies simultaneously coupled with imbalanced diets and chronic diseases. The problem of chronic diseases, non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, diabetes, obesity, cancer etc.) and malnutrition is more serious in the developing countries. The lack of access to health services, sufficient income, healthy and nutritious foods characterize majority of poor people in developing countries. So, food is not only the solution but also viewed as a product to enhance health and wellbeing, and it encourages the producers by supplying new goods that meet these needs. From the past decade, there has been growing consumer awareness regarding health, nutrition and the food safety which are often triggered by specific food incidents, especially in the developed countries and high-income groups in such countries. In the food industry there have been two broad trends which are hazards in the food chain and nutritional profile of the food. There has been recognition that hazards and contaminants can enter the food chain and can cause sickness, death and diseases, and so governments, often to deal with consumer and industry concerns, establish regulations and standards on food hazards including standards on pesticides, antibiotics, microbiological hazards and other chemical and physical contaminants. On the other hand, there is also a growing awareness of the health-enhancing properties for prevention and treatment of health concerns beyond the basic nutritional component of many foods.

The indigenous ornamental fish which are very popular overseas, are being harvested from the wild and exported. This in the long run, may lead to depletion of stock due to over harvesting of our valued native fish species. Hence, breeding of native fish species is also equally important for a sustainable trade of ornamental fishery and to conserve the natural stock. Some fishes breed naturally with ease, whereas others are bred by artificial techniques like hand stripping and hypophysation. In nature, the fishes are stimulated by changes in environmental factors. These conditions can be simulated to some extent in the aquaria by providing specific biological requirements for spawning.

I. Breeding of Zebra danio (Brachydanio rerio)

Brachydanio rerio is commonly known as zebra danio. The zebra danio, as the name implies, is characterized by a number of bright blue or purple horizontal lines, which run from the head to the caudal fin. This pattern is repeated in the anal and caudal fins too. The flanks have prussian blue colouration and operculum has golden blotches. The dorsal fin of this species has an olive yellow base and there are blue gold markings on the anal fin.

Introduction

Much of the world’s agricultural biodiversity is found in environments marginal for agricultural production. It is in such environments where management of high levels of diversity can become a central part of the livelihood management strategies of farmers and the survival of their communities. Abiotic stress can be termed as the negative impact of environmental factors on the organisms in a specific situation. It is a natural phenomenon that occurs in multiples and interdependent, and its impact varies across the sectors of agriculture. Abiotic stress is the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crop plants by more than 50%. Drought and salinity are becoming particularly widespread in many regions, and may cause serious salinization of more than 50% of all arable lands by the year 2050 (Wang  2003). Environmental stresses such as erratic and insufficient rainfall, extreme temperatures, salinity, alkalinity, aluminium toxicity, acidity, stoniness and others limit yield and productivity of many cultivated crop plants. Not only are such problems serious today, it seems they are inevitably worsening.

It is a systematic method to solving problems through an examination of policy approaches.
It involves evaluating public policies, including their development, implementation and impacts, to determine their effectiveness in achieving desired outcomes. The process includes identifying relevant issues, assessing potential solutions, weighing the costs and benefits and recommending the most appropriate course of action.
Use of Policy Analysis in Decision-Making
Policy analysis combines qualitative and quantitative methods to assess policies’ implications on economic, social and political factors. It often includes stakeholder analysis, forecasting future scenarios and evaluating policy impacts using tools like cost-benefit analysis, risk assessment and statistical modeling

Urban Air Pollution and Its Impact on Roadside Plants
Urban Air Pollution

Modern industrial society produces a large number of gases and particles in quantities to harm human, plant or animal life. The amount of pollutants released to the atmosphere by fixed or mobile anthropogenic sources is generally associated with the levels of economic activity. Deterioration of air quality is a major environmental problem in many urban centers in both developed and developing countries. Automobiles constitute a major source of air pollution in the urban areas. Motor vehicle emissions result from fuel combustion or evaporation. The most common types of transport fuel are gasoline and diesel. CO₂ and water vapors are the main products of the combustion, emitted in vehicle exhaust. The major pollutants emitted from the vehicles are particulate matter (suspended fine and ultra fine), sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide and metals.

Quality Components of the Produce

Various components of quality are used to evaluate the products in relation to specific grades and standards and responses to various environmental factors and post-harvest treatments. The relative importance of each factor depends upon the commodity and its intended use, fresh or processed. The main quality components of vegetables are mentioned below

The metabolic rate of reptiles is lower than for mammals and birds, and consequently the k constant in determining energy expenditure, nutritional requirements and even calculating allometric drug doses are related to the equation: Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) = K(Wkg0.75) = Kcal/day, where K is the energy constant = 10 in reptiles and Wkg is the animalís weight in kilograms.

Abstract

For 99% of our time on Earth, humans have been hunter-gatherers, intricately connected to and reliant upon our local lands and waters for food, materials, medicines and shelter. In this time we have evolved a unique and in-depth knowledge base, termed local ecological knowledge or ecoliteracy, which has been essential to sustaining human and ecosystem health over thousands of years. However with livelihood diversification towards non-resource dependent strategies, the emergence of local markets as a consequence of globalisation, and global patterns of economic development, our collective local knowledge is now being lost. With the loss of local livelihoods and knowledge comes a departure from traditional food systems as hunters, fishers, and gatherers and cultivators lose the skills needed to locate, collect, preserve, prepare, consume and manage indigenous foods. Traditional food systems have provided nutritional health and food security for indigenous and marginalised communities for generations, and play a critical role in cultural continuity, social systems and ecosystem biodiversity.

Introduction 
The evolution of governance reforms in India must be situated within the broader global and domestic transitions in public administration. Inheriting its foundational structures from British colonial rule, India retained key institutional frameworks post-Independence in 1947, including the Parliament, Executive, Judiciary, and systems of law and order and revenue administration. Although these institutions provided a degree of continuity and stability, they gradually became mired in procedural rigidity, excessive centralization, and legal formalism. Mathur (2013) notes that the performance of the three core organs of governance, the legislature, executive, and judiciary, has drawn increasing public concern, particularly in their responsiveness to the rising aspirations of Indian citizens. In the early decades post-independence, India adopted a centralized, commandand- control model of economic and administrative governance. State officials wielded considerable discretion over the allocation of licenses, quotas, and permits, while the private sector remained underdeveloped and tightly regulated. This framework, while aligned with the nation-building ethos of the time, ultimately led to inefficiencies, corruption, and citizen disenchantment. The 1990s marked a watershed moment in India’s governance trajectory. With a balance-of-payments crisis and external pressures from international financial institutions such as the IMF and World Bank, India adopted neoliberal economic reforms centered on liberalization, privatization, and globalization (Ramesh Singh, 2013). These reforms fundamentally altered the state’s role from a direct provider of goods and services to a facilitator and regulator. A new governance discourse emerged, emphasizing accountability, transparency, efficiency, and citizen participation. This also marked the diffusion of New Public Management (NPM) ideas, which advocated for performance-based administration, managerial autonomy, and partnership with non-state actors. Simultaneously, the Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002–2007) explicitly identified governance as a key determinant of development outcomes, underscoring that economic growth could not be sustained without reforming the institutions

Abstract

Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) have emerged as potential tools for competent planning and administration of water resources. In this study, a new methodology is proposed to delineate groundwater target zones using integrated RS, GIS and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. The developed methodology is confirmed by a case study in Karur district of Tamil Nadu, Southern India. Seven thematic layers, viz., Lithology, Lineament Density, Geomorphology, Slope, Post– Monsoon Water Level, Drainage Density and Land use / Land cover were considered in this study. Selected seven thematic layers and their features were assigned suitable weights on the Saaty’s scale according to their virtual significance in groundwater incidence. The assigned weights of the thematic layers and their features were then normalized by using AHP. Finally, the selected seven thematic maps were incorporated by weighted linear combination method in a GIS environment to produce a groundwater target map.

Introduction

Germination is the growth of a plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling, it is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. The seed of a vascular plant is a small package produced in a fruit after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Most seeds go through a period of dormancy, where there is no active growth; during this time the seed can be safely transported to a new location and/or survive adverse climatic conditions until circumstances are favourable for growth. Dormant seeds are ripe seeds that do not germinate because they are subject to external environmental conditions that prevent the initiation of metabolic processes and cell growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryonic tissues resume growth, developing towards a seedling. In short, seed germination is the ability of a seed to develop in to a normal plant under favourable conditions in the soil (ISTA, 1985) or the process by which the dormant embryo wakes up and begins to grow is known as seed germination.

Introduction to sustainable disease management

Plants and pathogens are involved in ongoing interactions over millennia that have been modified by coevolutionary processes to limit the spatial extent and temporal duration of disease epidemics (Zhan et al. 2015). These interactions are disrupted by modern agricultural practices, such as intensified monoculture using high yielding varieties. Agricultural intensification and monoculture coupled with globalization disrupt the coevolutionary dynamics of plant-pathogen interactions which escalating the evolutionary rate of pathogens and increasing the risk of plant disease epidemics. These activities, when supplemented with high resource inputs, create unique conditions which is conducive to widespread plant disease epidemics and rapid evolution of pathogen. Disease management requires a significant shift to include ecoevolutionary principles in the design of adaptive disease management strategy for minimizing the evolutionary potential of plant pathogens by reducing their genetic variation, stabilizing their evolutionary dynamics, and preventing dissemination of pathogen variants carrying new infectivity or resistance to pesticides (Zhan et al. 2014). As environmental and ecological issues continue to impact on agriculture, all the crop-specific and regional-specific, Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) to be developed for crop production, must be economically feasible, ecologically sound, environmentally safe and socially acceptable. Numerous non-chemical methods for management of crop diseases such as pathogen-free seeds, disease resistance, crop rotation, plant extracts, organic amendments and biological control agents are considered less harmful than chemical pesticides and therefore, offer great potential for application in modern agriculture (Marshal et al. 2008). No single method can provide satisfactory management of crop diseases. Integration of all the effective and eco-friendly measures in accordance with the dynamics of the agro-ecosystem management would be the best strategy for efficient plant disease management.