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The moisture content is the amount of water in the seed and is usually expressed as a percentage. It can he expressed on either a wet weight basis (where it is expressed as a percentage of the fresh weight of the seed) or on a dry weight basis (where it is expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the seed). The seed moisture content is the most vital parameter, which influence the seed quality and storage life of the seed. Seed moisture content is closely associated with several aspects of physiological seed quality. For example, it is related to seed maturity, optimum harvest time, mechanical damage, economics of artificial seed drying, seed longevity and insect & pathogen infestation.

Genus : Eugenia 
Species : uniflora  L.
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 22

Eugenia uniflora, L. Is another important genera in family Myrtaceae which produces edible fruit. The fruit is known by several names like Pitanga, Surinam cherry, Cayenne cherry and Florida cherry. The word pitanga is derived from Tupi meaning ‘piter’ and ‘anga’, scent or odour. From its native home in Brazil the fruit was introduced in India at an early time probably by the Portuguese but is not cultivated commercially. The shiny deep green foliage is very attractive and the crushed leaves results in a pungent but agreeable odour which drives away the flies.

ABSTRACT

Asuccessful micro grafting technique in Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) was developed using in vitro germinated seedling as root stock and shoots from stage II cultures as scions. Grafting success was dependent on the method of grafting, size of the scion and age of the root stock. Among the methods tried, side and cleft grafting were found to be suitable. Due to the ease of operation and faster union, side grafting was preferred. High levels of graft union were obtained when 2 - 3 cm long shoots from stage II cultures were grafted on to 8 - 9 days old in vitro raised root stocks in full strength MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium supplemented with Kinetin (2.5 mg l^-1), NAA (0.5 mg l^-1) and Brassinolide (1mg l^-1). The very high growth of grafted scion was obtained, when the micro grafts were transferred into MS medium containing full strength macroelements supplemented with Kinetin (5mg l^-1), NAA (1mg l^-1) and Brassinolide (1mg l^-1). The micro grafts after a process of hardening could be successfully transplanted into soil. Micro grafting techniques standardized could be used for rejuvenation of shoot explants of mature tree.

In avian species following diseases are caused by Clostridium bacteria.

1. Ulcerative enteritis
2. Necrotic enteritis
3. Gangrenous Dermatitis
4. Botulism
5. Yolk sac infections.

Clostridia infections are not common in birds and are not a significant source of infection for man and animals.

It is a common knowledge that most of the farmers apply irrigation water until all the points in the field are fully wetted and covered with a thin sheet of water. Studies have indicated that a significant (20-25%) amount of irrigation water is lost during its application at the farm due to poor farm designing and unevenness of the fields. This problem is more pronounced in the case of rice fields. Unevenness of fields leads to inefficient use of irrigation water and also delays tillage and crop establishment options. Fields that are not levelled have uneven crop stands, increased weed burdens and uneven maturing of crops. All these factors tend to contribute to reduced yield and produce quality which reduce the potential farm income. Effective land levelling is meant to optimize wateruse efficiency, improve crop establishment, reduce the irrigation time and effort required to manage crop.

Reasonably levelled agriculture fields has advantage over uneven and undulating crop fields as unevenness of the soil surface has a significant impact on the seed germination, crop stand and its yield. Traditionally land levelling was being done throughout India by bullock drawn plough or tractors and applying different devices for levelling the field by visual assessment e.g. on small plots with hoes, or with draft animals and equipment such as ploughs and bars or scrapers or grading. Equipment such as grading blades and hydraulically operated levellers mounted on wheels are used with tractors. More advanced and sophisticated levelling equipment is operated with a laser emitter, a laser sensor or receiver, and a scraper pulled by a tractor. After the desired level or slope of the field and/or the difference of the high and low spots have been surveyed, the emitter is set to send a rotating laser beam creating a plane of laser light above the field surface. The laser light is used as the levelling reference. It directs the hydraulic system of the moving tractor and scraper, and thereby controls the levelling. Hence, laser levelling or laser land levelling is levelling the crop field within certain degree of desired slope using a guided laser beam throughout the field.

It is a popular root crop having wide range of adaptability, grown in Japan, Koria, China, India and other European countries.

Origin and Distribution: Radish was an important food in Egypt during 2000 BC.  Fossils study reveals that, it was a food as early as 2700 BC. It spread to China during 500 BC and to Japan during AD 700. Variability of crop decreased from Europe to China and from there to Japan. Recent study indicates that East of Mediterranean, most probably China was the centre of origin of the crop. This means Europe and Asia are the probable places of origin.

1. SEED CLASSES

Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed programme, which basically depends upon

R packages include functions, codes and sample data. The functions used in R are contained in packages. A package in R contains several functions which are related to some particular type of job. A package conatins at least one function and there is no maximum limit to the no. of functions in a package. The set of packages in R which are set by default in the software is called base package. It contains a lot of commonly used functions. The packages in R are stored under a directory called “library” in the R environment. The packages get installed by default while installing R in the computer. Also more packages can be added later on after installation, when required for some specific purposes. The base packages are available by default when we start using R. But the other packages which are already installed while installing R have to be loaded while using R. These packages can be viewed in the package window by clicking on package. To install the package we have to click on install menu in the package window and then write the name of the package.

The packages can also be installed by using the function install.packages(“abc”) where abc is the name of the package to be installed.

Once a package is installed, it remains in the hard disk of the PC/laptop. But the package will have to be called for use in the current R session. The package once installed can be loaded for use in the current R session by checking the box near the name of the package displayed after clicking on the install menu in the Files/ Plots/Packages/Help window. The package can also be loaded by using library() function. The command will be library(“abc”) where abc is the name of the package. The loaded package remains in the memory for the current R session. Once we quit the R session, the installed package has to loaded again if needed.

Definition

The availability of a plant pathogens in given area depends upon its ability to survive not only during its parasitic relations with hosts but also during those seasons in which the hosts are not growing. The latter part of continued existence of plant pathogens in which they remain in dormant condition to overcome the unfavourable condition of non availability of hosts is called “survival”. Pathogens may survive between crop seasons by means of specialized resting structures , by functioning as saprophyte in or on the soil or in diseased plant debris, or by living in some intimate association with living plants or other organism.

Operculina turpethum (OT) Silva Manso, also known as Tihudi/Trivrit due to its triangular stem, is an Ayurvedic herb from India that belongs to the Convolvulaceae family. Indian Jalap/Turpeth root in English, Nisoth/Turpeth/ Panila/Pithori in Hindi, Trivrit in Sanskrit, Tegada in Telugu, Trikolpakkonna/ Triputa/Sivata in Malayalam, Sigade in Kannada, and Kumbham/Sivatai in Tamil are some of the other names for it. It grows up to 1000 square feet on Indian roadsides and is occasionally cultivated as an adornment in gardens.

Morphological characteristics

The crop is a fragrant perennial creeper with a basic stem that might be triangular or rectangular. The leaves are many and oval in shape, measuring 2 to 5 inches in length. It consists of cylindrical pieces of root and stem, 1.5-15 cm long x 1-5 cm diameter, with the central woody portion removed by splitting the bark on one side, external surface longitudinally furrowed giving the drug a rope-like appearance, odour distinct but unpleasant or musty, taste bland at first, then slightly acrid, fracture short in bark and fibrous in wood, odour distinct but unpleasant or musty. The root portions are cylindrical, twisted, and a dull grey tint on the outside. The flower arrangement is 1 to 4 inches long and includes three to four branches with white blooms. Fruit is round ½ or ¾ inch in diameter, it bears 4 shiny 2 inch long seeds. The plant bears fruits and flowers from March to December.

The house should provide adequate protection from direct sunlight and rain. Pigs are extremely sensitive to heat and cold. In rural locations, simple low-cost dwellings built with locally accessible materials are preferred. It is also possible to construct adaptable pens that may be used for all types of pigs. Adequate pig housing is critical for disease prevention, parasite control, and labour savings.

The vital points about the pig house are as follows:

• Build the shed on a dry and adequately raised site.
• Avoid locations that are flooded, swampy, or have a lot of rain.
• The shed’s side walls should be 4-5 feet tall, with the remaining height supported by GI pipes or wooden poles.
• Plastering the walls will make them damp proof.

1. Result demonstration

It is a method of motivating the people for adoption of a new practice by showing its distinctly superior result. The demonstrations are conducted in the farm or home of selected individuals and are utilized to educate and motivate groups of people in their neighborhood. This is a very effective method for the transfer of technology in a community.

Objectives

1. To show the advantages and applicability of a newly recommended practice in farmer’s own situation.

Pineapple is the second most popular tropical fruit next to bananas. It is also known as Piña, Nanas and Ananas. Native to South America, it was named for its resemblance to a pine cone but it is neither a pine nor an apple. When Christopher Columbus made his second voyage to the Caribbean’s in 1493, he and his crew ate the unusual fruit they found there. They thought the fruit looked like a pine cone, so they dubbed it the “Pine of the Indies.” When they introduced it to the English later on, they added the word “apple” because they thought it should be associated with another delicious fruit that people enjoyed. Thus, the name “pineapple” came into existence. In their natural form, every variety of pineapple has a rough, diamond-pattern skin. Their tastes vary slightly, though they all basically have the same juicy, tart taste. 

Active plant breeding programmes call for continuous search for new genes to be incorporated into advanced breeding lines to face the new problems and the challenges. The rapid technological developments in gene transfer technology in recent years have opened new avenues for introducing useful genes from wild and weedy relatives of crop plants. It is also a fact that due to genetic erosion, wild species, are getting lost. Therefore, systematic collection of germplasm of wild and weedy species have become more relevant today then ever before for the following reasons (Bothmer and Seberg, 1995).

Abstract

Population dynamics studies of phytoparasitic nematodes (mainly 2nd stage juveniles of root-knot nematode; Meloidogyne incognita) in the rhizosphere of persimmon (Diospyros kaki ) orchard, were carried out, in relation to seasonal fluctuations. There was recorded remarkable impact of temperature on the nematode population.  Highest nematode populations (7148/ 200 cc soil) were recorded during May, when temperature was maximum; 22.9^ºC (15.7- 30.0^ºC). Least population density of the nematode were extracted during January when temperature remained minimum; 7.9^ºC (2.4-13.3^ºC). However, relative humidity during entire course of investigation did not show any considerable impact on the population fluctuation of the nematode. With the fall in temperature from July onwards up to January (22.6- 7.9 ^ºC) there was gradual decline in the nematode population (3813- 468/ 200 cc soil), showing thereby that nematode populations in the rhizosphere is directly affected by the prevailing temperature and thereby soil temperature.

The concept of immunonutrition has been developed in humans and animals mainly in relation to its impact on reinforcement of the immune system and its ability to resist disease. However, in the case of immunology of reproduction, different (even opposite) mechanisms  of immune system modulation are likely to be involved since the main objective is a local inhibition or the attenuation of the immune system toward the protection of the embryos. Most of the studies investigating the role of feeding and /or specific nutrients have used nutrient deficiency models to identify the mechanisms involved. During recent years, an increasing number of substrates have been recognized for their immunomodulating function. Macro and micronutrients have been identified as so-called immunonutrients. Although informative, such an approach might not apply to a concept of immunonutrition for reproduction when the dietary levels of a given nutrient will have to cover both the metabolic and immunomodulation needs for optimal reproduction.

Sowing of Seed: It is a process of planting seeds of crops in well prepared or no till field or nursery beds/pots for raising crops in following methods:

Methods of Sowing: The sowing method is determined by the crop to be sown and resources on the disposal of farmer. There are 6 sowing methods which differ in their merits, demerits and adoption. Those are:

1.Broad casting

2.Broad or Line sowing

3.Dibbling

4.Transplanting

5.Planting

6.Putting seeds behind the plough.

The growth pole theory was developed by French regional economist, Francois Perroux, in 1955. He was concerned with the phenomenon of economic development and with the process of structural change. Growth pole is a central location of economic activity. It is an urban location where economic activity ignites growth and better quality of life in the urban periphery.

He attempted to explain how modern process of economic growth deviated from the stationary conception of equilibrium growth. His arguments were based on Schumpeter’s theories of the role of innovations and large scale firms.

In Schumpeter’s analysis, development occurs as a result of discontinuous spurts in a dynamic world. The cause of discontinuous spurts is the innovative entrepreneur whose activities take place in large-scale firms. These firms are able to dominate their environment in the sense of exercising reversible and partially reversible influences on other economic units by reason of their dimension and negotiating strength, and by the nature of their operations.

Scale of operations, dominance and impulses have close relationship to innovate. This is the most important feature of Perroux’s theory and leads to the concepts of dynamic propulsive firm and leading propulsive industry. The dynamic propulsive firm is relatively large and belongs to a relatively fast growing sector. It has a high ability to innovate and intensity of its interrelation with other sectors of the economy is important enough for the induced effects to be transmitted to them.

Introduction

Goat is being raised for centuries as poor man’s cow due to its importance of providing employment in rural areas by producing meat and healthy meat. Goats also play a major role in agriculture economy of India. Goat is excellent source of additional income for poor and landless owners. The goat milk is nutritious and easily digestible milk to their kids. Goats are easy to maintain as they can graze on open land. Goat farming is an excellent option where fodder and forage is limited. Goat farmers can get good returns with successful goat rearing. Now a day, goat farming has become more commercial and many people are taking up as a challenge to meet the demand and supply. Rank of India in goat population is 2^nd. Total goat population in the country is 148.88 million during 2019. Total goat has increased by 10.14% over previous livestock census (2012). About 27.8 % of the total is contributed by goats.