eChapters

In R there is facility of reshaping the data. Reshaping of data includes joining of two or more vectors to create a data frame. Also two or more data frames can be merged. Appropriate functions are available for these jobs. While merging the data frames, we can join columns or rows.

Illustration of joining two vectors by using cbind() function.

Pest and pathogen incidence is a natural occurrence that frequently goes unreported. However, they become a concern when their spectra expand and cause significant losses. Chemical pesticides are now commonly used in agricultural techniques to lessen the impact of such severe damages. Without a question, the use of chemical pesticides has put human health, ecological health, and sustainability at danger.

The digestive mechanism of a pig is ideally adapted to full concentrate-based meals. The digestive organs are quite simple, with a continuous musculomembanous tube from the mouth to the anus. However, this system includes multiple sophisticated interaction functions.

Mouth

The mouth is necessary not only for food consumption, but also for first partial size reduction by grinding. While teeth are the major means of reducing meal size and increasing surface area, when feed is mixed with saliva, the first step in the chemical breakdown of food occurs. The three primary salivary glands are the parotid, mandibular, and sublingual glands. Saliva secretion is a reflex activity that occurs when there is food in the mouth. The amount of mucus in saliva is determined by the wetness or dryness of the meal consumed. As a result, on a dry diet, more saliva mucus is secreted, whereas on a moist diet, only enough is secreted to aid in swallowing. Amylase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes starch to maltose, is present in saliva in very low amounts. Salivary digestive enzymes provide a minor effect. Food is chewed and mixed with saliva before going to the stomach via the mouth, throat, and oesophagus. Oesophageal movement involves muscle peristalsis, or the contraction and relaxation of muscles to move food.

1. Farm Publication

Is a class of publications prepared by the extension agency in printed form, containing information relating to the improvement of farm and home. Farm publications are of various types such as leaflet, folder, bulletin, newsletter, journal and magazine. Farm publications may be used singly or in combination with other extension methods.

Objectives

1. To reach a large number of people quickly and simultaneously at a low cost.
2. To provide accurate, motivating, credible and distortion free information.

A puppet is an object resembling a human, animal, or mythical figure, animated or manipulated by a puppeteer. Puppetry, an ancient form of theatre dating back to the 5th century BC in Ancient Greece, encompasses a wide array of puppet types, crafted from diverse materials to suit various forms and purposes.

Puppets vary greatly in complexity, from simple constructions to intricate designs. The puppeteer controls movements using hands, arms, or devices like rods or strings, manipulating the puppet’s body, head, limbs, and sometimes its mouth and eyes. Often, the puppeteer provides the character’s voice, synchronizing speech with puppet movements, which together convey narratives and stories.

Among the simpler puppet types are finger puppets, miniature figures fitting onto a single finger, and sock puppets, created and animated by inserting a hand into a sock, manipulating the hand to simulate the puppet’s mouth movements. Hand puppets, including live-hand puppets operated by one hand inside the puppet, and larger versions like live-hand puppets requiring two puppeteers, also feature prominently.

Proper nutrition is essential for the health and well-being of dogs at every stage of life. The nutritional needs of a dog change as it grows, so it’s important to tailor their diet according to their age, size, and health status. Below is a comprehensive guide on the nutritional needs of dogs, broken down into different age groups: puppies, adult dogs, and senior dogs.

1. Puppies (0-12 Months)

Puppies are in a rapid growth phase and require a high level of nutrients, including proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, to support the development of muscles, bones, organs, and the immune system.

Nutritional Needs

Protein: Puppies require high-quality animal-based protein to build muscle and tissue. Around 22-30% of their diet should be protein-rich. Chicken, tur key, fish, and eggs are excellent sources.

Samples for toxicological analysis are usually taken during post-mortem examination. In suspected cases of poisoning the following specimens should be sent for chemical analysis.

Snow is precipitation of solid water, mainly in the form of branched hexagonal crystals or stars. It is “precipitation of white opaque grains of ice”. Measurement of snow cover is related to runoff estimation and also important for hilly agriculture.

4.1. Snowfall

It is the amount of fresh snow deposited over a specified period (generally 24 hours). The measurements relate to depth and water content of the snowfall.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is called as ‘king of fibres’ and ‘white gold’.
2. _____in the cotton meal is toxic to monogastric animals.
3. A purple spot is found in the claw of the petals is called _____
4. The isolation distance adopted for cotton is _____ for foundation seed.

Seedling:A seedling is a very young plant that grows from a seed. When the moisture, light, and temperature conditions are correct, the seedling’s development begins with seed germination and the formation of three main parts:

1.Radicle - Embryonic root

2.Hypocotyl - Embryonic shoot

3.Cotyledons - Seed leaves.

In vegetables and annual ornamental crops where generally seed size is small they are germinated in nursery beds or in plug trays indoor (greenhouse) or outdoor(field), hardened before transplanting.

Sapling: A sapling is a young tree, say more than 1 year and less than 3 years’ old. In the life cycle of trees, a seedling converts into a sapling as the next stage of development. It is nearly one-meter tall and generally remains to be known as a sampling until its stem reaches 7 centimetre in diameter. The time period of this stage depends upon the particular species of a tree. In vegetable and annual ornamental crops seedlings generally are one month to 40 days old. Older than this, seedlings do not give better yields on transplanting. Very young seedlings exhibit larger mortality on transplanting.

Transplanting: Transplanting or replanting is the technique of moving a plant by uplifting from one location to another. From nursery beds seedlings or saplings are shifted and planted either in the field or greenhouses for commercial growing. Seedlings are uprooted if grown in soil medium. They are transplanted with growing medium. Uprooted seedlings take time to establish at a new place and face transplanting shock- time taken by roots to establish contact with the soil or growing medium.

Introduction

Sheep is a multi-utility animal used for the production of wool, meat, skins and manure. They don’t require costly structures to house them. Sheep are sparing convertor of grass into meat and wool. The structure of their lips causes them to clean grains last to collect time and in this way convert waste feed into gainful items. Sheep eat different types of weed plant. This makes them phenomenal weed destroyer. They don’t damage plant like goats. They thrive well even under bad management practices. Unemployed youth can adopt sheep rearing as a source of gainful employment. Total sheep population in the country is 74.26 million during 2019. Total sheep has increased by 14.133% over previous livestock census (2012). About 13.8 % of the total livestock is contributed by sheep.

The most important use of R programming lies in importing of data files which serves as input for the analysis work. After the analysis is over by using R codes, operators and functions, the output result must also be exported in form of files. The files are imported in form of csv files (comma separated variable), text files or excel files.

Before going to the actual content of the chapter we have to have an idea about csv files. CSV stands for Comma Separated value. It is used to store tabular data, such as a spreadsheet or database. CSV is delimited text file in which the values are separated by commas. CSV files occupy much less space than excel files and also gets imported in a program at a much faster rate than Excel files. CSV Files also does not manipulate data and stores as it is.

Let us consider that an excel file named as ‘plant’ which stores three variables, named as ph, pd and yield is created inside the folder named as ‘My Data’ which is placed in the desktop. Thus the path of the file is “C:\\Desktop\\My Data\\plant”

To import excel file the package will be readxl and the command will be library(readxl)

6.1 Designing primers

Designing correct primers are very important to get the expected result in PCR experiment. There are two primers (Forward & Reverse) required for the amplification of the desired DNA fragment. One primer should anneal to the sense strand (oriented to the 5'→3' direction) and another primer should complement the antisense strand (oriented in the 5'→3' direction).

There are various characteristics to be considered to design a good primer including Tm, length, GC content, secondary structure and specificity.

There are commercially available softwares besides free online tools at NCBI (primer blast) for designing PCR primers. In addition, primer sequences published in peer reviewed literature can also be used.

Reproduction that does not involve the union of male and female gametes is known as asexual reproduction. Reproduction in which sexual organs or related structures take part but fertilization does not occur, or crops which are propagated asexually or by vegetative means are known as asexually propagated crops. Most of the fruit plants are propagated asexually which consist of large number of clones. Example: sugarcane, potato, sweet potato, banana, mango, citrus, pears, peaches, litchi, crops that propagates by asexual means. The procedure of selection used for asexually propagated crops is known as clonal selection, since the selected plants are used to produce new clones or superior clones can be isolated from local variety, introduced variety or inter crossed population.

Determination of soil texture mainly depends on the complete dispersion of soil aggregates into their individual primary particles without triturating the particles themselves, accurate fractionation of the sample into various separates, sedimentation of different particles in the viscous medium as well as measurement of individual particle by the hydrometer.

Pistacia integerrima Stewart (Pistaceaceae) is an ethnobotanically important tree native to Asia. Pistacia integerrima is a species of pistachio tree native to Asia, commonly called zebrawood or the crab’s claw. It is often classified as Pistacia chinensis ssp. integerrima.

Pistacia integerrima, commonly known as kakra shingi, is a moderate-sized deciduous tree, up to 18 m in height, with a short stout bole found in the Himalayas from Indus to Kumaon. Hard, horn-shaped, rugose, hollow galls like excrescences are formed on the leaves and petioles of the plant by an insect of Pemphigus species. Dry powdered galls have a very astringent and slightly bitter taste and terebinthine odour. This tree is also used as a rootstock in the cultivation of commercial pistachios

Morphological characteristics

It is a moderate sized deciduous tree with rough grey bark. Leaves are 15-23 cm long with or without a terminal leaflet. Leaflet is stalked, 4-5 sub-opposite pairs, lanceolate, coriaceous, entire and arched. Flowers are greenish-yellow or brownish in colour, dioecious, 0.2 cm diameter, reddish in lateral, puberulous panicles, appearing with or just before the young leaves.

Introduction
Public speaking is an essential skill that has empowered individuals to communicate ideas, influence others, and effect change. Its roots trace back to ancient civilizations, where orators like Aristotle and Cicero in Greece and Rome set the foundations for what is now considered an art and science. Today, public speaking is valuable in various fields, from business and politics to education and social activism. This chapter will explore the need and purpose of public speaking, shedding light on its role in personal, professional, and societal contexts.
The Need for Public Speaking
Public speaking is an indispensable skill for various reasons, each of which relates to a fundamental aspect of communication in society. Below are some of the primary needs addressed by public speaking:
Enhancing Communication Skills
Public speaking helps individuals to express their ideas clearly and persuasively, a skill essential for effective communication in both professional and personal spheres. By honing these skills, speakers become better equipped to share their thoughts and influence others.
• Active Listening and Empathy: Effective public speakers are also active listeners, adapting their messages based on the audience’s feedback and emotional cues, fostering a sense of empathy and engagement (Lucas, 2014).

In order to obtain maximum yield of fish from a lake or reservoir, it is essential to culture fast growing compatible species of different feeding habits is called as composite fish culture.

Any one kind of species cannot utilize the variety of food available in the pond. For a complete utilization of cheap natural food, pond fishes of different age groups or of different species may be selected for stocking. A combination of several compatible species with complementary food habits would make better use of the food resources of the pond as well as ecological potentials of the pond.

When fishes of different age groups and different species are cultured in same pond called as composite fish farming or mixed farming or polyculture. This is based on the principle that compatible species do not harm each other instead they utilize in the most efficient manner, all available food supply of the pond for maximum production of fish yield. There is no competition between different species on the other land they may be beneficial effect on the growth of others.

Abstract

Among different acaricides evaluated, propargite (0.0285%) provided maximum control (98.6%) followed by fenzaquin (0.0025%) with 97.2 per cent control. Both propargite and fenzaquin were effective even 14 days after spray giving 71.0 to 80.6 per cent control. Horticultural mineral oils (1.0 %) were also effective and provided 87.7 to 93.8 per cent mortality of the pest after 24 hours of spray, however, their efficacy declined after 14 days of spray to 43.2 to 60.1 per cent. It was concluded that propargite (0.0285 % and 0.057%) and fenzaquin (0.001% and 0.0025%) provided effective control beyond 15 days of spray. Horticultural mineral oil treated plants, however, needed to be retreated in about 15 days.

Genus : Euphoria/Nephelium/Dimocarpus
Species : longana (Lour.) Stend. cinerea
Family : Sapindaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 20

The longan (Euphoria longana) belongs to the Sapindaceae or soapberry family to which more important fruits like litchi and rambutan also belongs. The family contains more than 1000 spp. from 125 genera widely distributed in the tropical and warm subtropics. Most of the species are native to Asia though some are also found in south America, Africa and Australia. The genus has seven species but only longana is both horticulturally and commercially important as it yields/produces edible fruits. For most of the growth, flowering and fruit characters it is similar to the two above horticultural crops mentioned. In respect of soil and climate it is less demanding and does adapt or tolerates drier and cooler condition better than litchi.