eChapters

It is the actual minimum temperature experienced by the plants near ground surface. The grass minimum temperature is lower than the air temperature at 4 ft level. It is the temperature recorded in open air ground on short turf, with the bulb of the thermometer just in contact with the tips of the blades of grass. It is also described as the temperature at 5.0 cm (2 inches) above ground. It is used during October to March period only when frost occurrence is expected. The readings of the grass minimum thermometer indicate the possibility of ground frosts, which is important information for farmers, gardeners and growers.

Conservation Agriculture

The agronomic measures for water conservation helps to control the evapotranspiration loss from soil and plant surface, reduces the splash effect of raindrops, checks topsoil erosion and runoff losses, permits a better intake of rainwater by improving the better soil physical environment and thereby conserves higher soil moisture for better plant growth and yield.

1. Mulching : It protects the top soil from erosion loss by controlling runoff, facilitates rainwater absorption by soil, increases the consumptive use of water by crops and hence the water use efficiency, regulates the hydrothermal regime of soil, reduces the evaporation component of the evapotranspiration, prevents soil crusting and plant nutritional losses and keep down the weed infestation. Dry soil mulch as created by stirring the soil surface with the inter-culturing implements helps to minimize evaporation loss from soil surface. Use of cover mulches like black polythene sheets or organic residues or crop stubbles on soil surface will act as barrier to reduce the evaporation losses. Post-rainy season crops (rabi crops) which live primarily on soil stored moisture derive more benefit from mulching.
2. Anti-evaporants : These are used to reduce the evaporation from the soil surface. Straw, sawdust, paddy husk, wood bark etc are used to arrest the evaporation from soil surface. Hexadecanol, a long-chain alcohol, is also used to retard the evaporation from soil surface. This chemical is resistant to microbial activity and degradation and remains active in the soil for more than a year. The main limitation in soil surface mulching is high cost involvement.

Recent Initiatives by National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer

Standardization of the drying techniques

In fennel five methods of grain drying were employed viz., shade dryer (30°C), sun dryer (35°C to 37°C), solar dryer (40°Cto 42°C), vegetable dryer (50°C) and multipurpose grain dryer (60°C). Fennel grains which were dried under solar dryer, gave maximum test weight (5.17 g), recovery (39.82 %) with lowest moisture content (61.30%) and highest taste marks (9.3) and colour marks (9.2).

Soil map is a map showing diversity of soil types and its properties such as pH, texture, organic matter and depth of horizons in the area of interest obtained as the end of soil survey. Generally, soil maps are used to simply identify soils and their properties, but are sometimes required for more specific purposes, such as the suitability of soils for a particular crop, suitability for irrigation, erosion risk and many other specific needs or environmental threats.

Soils fulfil many functions important for agriculture, forestry and the management of soil resources and natural hazards. The functionality of soils depends on their properties; hence, accurate and spatially highly resolved maps of basic soil properties such as texture, organic carbon content and pH for specific soil depth are needed for the sustainable management of soils. The surface soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration is a useful soil property to map soils, interpret soil properties, and guide fertilizer and agricultural chemical applications.

Traditionally farmers apply fertilizers, chemicals and other crop production inputs to optimize the production of the field as a whole. This results in application of over application of inputs and low inputs in certain locations of the field because of variation in field characteristics including soil organic carbon, soil texture, soil nutrients, field topography, and other properties. In addition, uniform applications may increase the chances of pollution of the environment due to excess application in some field area. Precision farming technology has been shown to optimize application rates if the variation of field characteristics can be used to guide the application rate of crop-production inputs. The organic carbon concentrations of surface soil have been used to spatially vary the application rate of some crop-production inputs. The surface soil organic carbon concentration affects the activity of many herbicides, influences plant-available nitrogen and also affects the soil’s ability to adsorb plant nutrients. Knowing its concentration may therefore be useful, especially if its spatial distribution could be determined accurately and for low cost.

9.1 Purpose

To lay down a standard protocol to perform RT-PCR for quantitative analysis of target RNA.

9.2 Principle

RT-PCR technology is used to amplify a specific RNA sequence (target sequence) to measure its expression inside the cell. RT-PCR follows the same principle as of normal PCR, but instead of DNA here cDNA is used as template for amplification. Extracted RNA is reverse transcribed to cDNA with the help of reverse transcription enzyme. The cDNA is then subjected for PCR amplification with the help of DNA polymerase, target specific primers, nucleotides and reaction buffer. In molecular diagnosis, RT-PCR is used to detect the expression of oncogenes at the time of diagnosis. It is also used to detect minimal residual disease during treatment

Abiotic stresses include salinity, drought, flood, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, radiation etc. They are the foremost factors that causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide. This situation is going to be more rigorous due to increasing desertification of world’s terrestrial area, increasing salinization of soil and water, shortage of water resources and environmental pollution.

The inadequacy of water availability, including precipitation and soil moisture storage capacity, in quantity and distribution during the life cycle of a crop to restrict the expression of its full genetic yield potential”. Generally drought stress occurs when the available water in the soil is reduced and atmospheric conditions cause continuous loss of water by transpiration or evaporation. Drought stress tolerance is seen in almost all plants but its extent varies from species to species and even within species.

Morphological characteristics

Rewand chini is a perennial stout herb, 1.5–3.0 m tall. Roots are very stout and thick. Leaves are radical, orbicular, or broadly ovate, very large, and 30–45 cm in diameter with long petioles.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are small, dark purple or pale red in axillary panicles. The plant has three to five years of juvenile phase, followed by reproductive phase. Flowering occurs in June–July. Seeds are collected in late August–September, when they turn dark brown. Seed production potential varies from 300 seeds to 950 seeds per plant.

Distribution

The species occurs in the temperate Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim, at an elevation of 2800–4000 m. It is found in alpine zone on rocky soil, moraines, and crevices, between boulders and near streams in specific pockets. It is sporadically cultivated in the North-eastern states for its leaves, which are used as vegetable.

Climate and soil

Rewand chini plant is restricted to the temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine zones of the Himalayas. Well-drained, porous, humus-rich soil is suitable for its cultivation. It prefers exposed or partially shaded habitat and can be cultivated on altitudes above 1800 m in height.

Accidental sampling: Accidental sampling as quota sampling is based upon the convenience in accessing sampling population. While quota sampling attempts comprise people possessing an obvious/visible characteristic, accidental sampling makes no such effort. Any person that comes across can be contacted for participation in the study. Collecting data are stopped when reaching the required number of respondents decided to have in the sample.

Agricultural Journalism

Journalism refers to the production and distribution of reports on recent events. The word journalism applies to the occupation, using methods of gathering information andutilizing literary techniques. Various forms ofjournalistic mediums include: print, television, radio, Internet and in the past: newsreels. The activity or profession of writing for newspapers, magazines, ornews websites or preparing news to be broadcast. The difference between Farm journalism and general journalism.

Definition

Paracelsus saying– Nothing is devoid of poison it is the dose that differentiate between a drug and a poison.

? Poison- Any chemical substance either naturally present or Man made produces deleterious effect on the health of living organism are termed as Poisons.

? Toxicology term derived from Greek Word Toxicon which means Poison.

Definitions

? Toxicology: It is the science or study of poisons on biologic systems, including their properties, actions and effects. Also their detection and identification, the treatment and prevention of the conditions produced by them.

? Toxicant: Any poisonous agent/ Professional Term used for Poison.

? Xenobiotic: Derived from Greek Word Xenos means – alien or foreign.

? Xenobiotics are those substances which are foreign to the body and are biologically active but do not take part in the process of energy production.

Strawberries one of the best fruits of the world are native to North America. Strawberry fruits are aggregates made up of several small fruits, each with one seed called an achene. The flesh of the strawberry is actually an enlarged receptacle, non-reproductive material. The word strawberry comes from the old English streawberige, most likely because the plant sends out runners which could be linked to pieces of straw. The name Strawberry was also derived from the berries that are “strewn” about on the plants, and “strewn berry” eventually became “Strawberry”. Strawberry is a delicious fruit taken fresh in several ways. It also makes excellent ice cream and jam on account of its rich aroma. 

The “falling number” is a measurement used by plant breeders and grain quality specialists to determine the soundness of wheat, which is primarily influenced by the degree of sprouting in a grain sample. Hagberg Falling Number is the full name of this international standard of sprout measurement.  The term “falling numbers” refers to the amount of time it takes for the Hagberg steel ball in this sprout analysis tool to fall through a flour/water slurry that has been heated to release the starch from water. 

The efforts to keep pace with the fast life are causing mental and physical tensions. Diversion and relaxation is needed for the revival of spirit and enthusiasm. Leisure is an unimposed free time, after the practical necessities of life have been attended to. It is the time spent in activities chosen by the individual rewarding for its own sake. Choice of leisure time activities may also depend on the regularity of free time. An activity performed during small amounts of free time may be different than the one planned for a large block of free time. The leisure activities have far reaching influence on the personality development of the youth. If these youngsters are trained to make use of their leisure time for productive purpose, their endless energies could be channelised into fruitful development work.

An investigation was carried out involving 120 rural youth from Kapasi and Mardasgaon villages in Gangakhed taluka of Parbhani district from marathwada region of Maharashtra state, to asses the leisure time utilization by rural youth.  The sample included 70 boys and 50 girls.

Profile of Rural Youth

Education : As regards the education of female youth is concerned, 30 percent of them were educated up to H.S.C. and S.S.C, level where as 20 percent of them were educated up to high school level and 10 percent of them were degree holders and educated up to middle school level.

Abstract

The Adam bridge, the curvilinear chains of islands linking India (Thanushkodi) with Sri Lanka (Thalaimannar), has been a matter of scientific and mythological debate. While the great epic Ramayana says that Lord Rama built this Adam bridge around 1.5 million years ago to bring back his wife Seetha from Srilanka who was a captive by king Ravana of Srilanka, some reports gave another view that it is coral islands of 1.7 million years of age. Under this backdrop, the author refutes the claim made by NASA that the Adam bridge was located firstly by one of its satellites and cited evidences that the Indian scientists located and mapped it using the IRS satellite data much earlier. Further, on the basis of bundles of beach ridges dated in Tiruthuraipoondi-Vedaranniyam area and as well as some of these continue up to Uchipulli area in Ramanathpuram district, the author assigned an age of 3500 YBP ( Years Before Present) to Uchipulli beach ridges seen in the main land to the west of Rameshwaram and Adam’s bridge and inferred that the Adam’s bridge must be equal to or younger than 3500 YBP. The easterly nosing of Indian mainland in Ramanathapuram – Rameshwaram – Thanushkodi and its further extension in the form of Adam bridge, the author demonstrated that the because of anticlockwisely rotating littoral currents to the north and clockwisely moving littoral currents to the south of Adam bridge, the chains sandy islands namely Adam’s bridge was formed by the segregation of sands in between currents shadow zone after 3500 YBP.

Studies and Findings

There was some coverage in the newspapers some time ago about the discovery of a land bridge (Adam’s Bridge) between Dhanushkodi (India) and Talaimannar (Sri Lanka) by NASA through one of its satellite mission. It was also written in some articles that this land bridge was constructed by Lord Rama 1.7 million years ago to reach Sri Lanka with the aim to bring back his wife Sita from the clutches of Ravana. However, this linkage was refuted by NASA. It accepted that the picture was captured by one of its satellites, but it was unaware of the linkage of the land bridge with the great Indian epic Ramayana. Some reports gave another view and mentioned that the bridge was nothing, but 1.7 million years old coral reefs. Many historians have also come out against linking the Adam’s Bridge with Ramayana.

Horse

The muscles of lumbar spine in horse are more or less similar to those of ox. Of the sublumbar muscles, the psoas minor lies under the bodies of the lumbar and last three thoracic vertebrae. It arises from dorsal ends of sixteenth and seventeenth ribs and eighteenth thoracic vertebra and the first five lumbar vertebrae.

The psoas major arises from dorsal ends of last two ribs and the ventral faces of the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. It is much wider than that of ox and covers the quadratus lumborum entirely.

The origin of iliacus muscle is limited to sacrum and ilium only. It has no lumbar origin and it is not so intimately united with psoas major muscle.

The quadratus lumborum is less developed.

The intertransversarii lumborum is absent between the fifth and sixth lumbar transverse processes.

The muscles of abdominal wall in horse do not have any striking differences, except that the obliquus abdominis externus is thicker and more extensive. The muscular portion of this muscle reaches the external angle of ilium and as high as lumbar transverse processes.

In crop production mostly basic inputs are seeds or seedlings/planting material, irrigation water, fertilizers, weedicides and pesticides. Site specific input application means providing plant input requirement at right time, in right amount and at right place. Site specific is a term that refers to treating the smallest possible area as a single unit. A site is simply the smallest unit the farmer can manage with the tools available. The treatment of each site is specific to the needs of each site as determined by soil test data and crop scouting reports. There are technology tools for using site-specific management more effectively. In precision agriculture site specific application tools and technologies are as under

10.1 Purpose

To lay down a standard protocol to perform qPCR for quantitative analysis of target genomic sequence.

10.2 Principle

qPCR or quantitative polymerase chain reaction or real-time polymerase chain reaction, is a molecular biology technique to amplify and at a time quantify a targeted DNA molecule and based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). It is called real time as the amplified DNA is detected as the reaction progresses and holds an advantage over standard PCR where the reaction is detected at its end. There are two common methods in quantitative PCR to detect the products i) non-specific fluorescent dyes which intercalates with any double stranded DNA ii) sequence-specific DNA probes labeled with a fluorescent reporter consisting oligonucleotides. This reporters helps in detection of the complementary hybridization of the probe and quantifies amount of DNA in cells or tissues.

The disease , referred as the disorder of crop plants caused by fungi, mycoplasma, bacteria and viruses. Plant resistance is one of the most effective and ideal approach to combat diseases and insect-pest. Resistance is the capacity of plants to resist, withstand and overcome the attack of pathotypes.

Mechanism of Disease Resistance

Different mechanism of disease resistance are as under:

1. Disease escape

The ability of susceptible host plants to avoid attack of disease due to environmental factors like early maturing varieties, shift in the date of planting, change the field, balanced application of NPK etc. Example., early maturing varieties of groundnut and potato may escape from ‘Tikka’ and ‘Late blight’ diseases respectively.

2. Disease tolerance

The ability of the plants to tolerate the attack of the pathogen without loss or little loss in the yield. This endurance is brought about by the influence of external characters. Generally, tolerance is difficult to measure since it is confounded with partial resistance and disease escape. Disease tolerance is of three types:

In the coffee family Rubiaceae, Rubia cordifolia L. (RC) is a useful medicinal plant in the Ayurvedic system due to its many pharmacological characteristics. It is also known as common Madder or Indian Madder. It was grown for a red pigment generated from the roots. Rubia was divided into roughly 70 species that were found all over the world, including 36 species and two variants described from China. Because of their high bioactivities, Rubia plant extracts and phytochemicals have gotten a lot of interest.

Morphological characteristics

It is a perennial, prickly climber with a stem, growing up to 12 m long. Leaves are highly variable, ovate lanceolate, 5-7 nerved, 2-10 cm long and 2-5 cm broad, occurring in whorls of 4-6. The stems are slender and quadrangular. The leaves are simple, opposite and stipulate, the stipule is interpetiolar. The petiole is 1.5–3 cm long. The blade is lanceolate, 1.5–5 cm × 0.5–2.5 cm, cordate at base, obtuse acuminate at apex and displays three to five longitudinal nerves. Roots are perennial, long, cylindrical, and rusty brown in colour

Diffusion

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971).

Innovation

Innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or otherunit of adoption.

Adoption

Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available.