eChapters

13.1. Introduction

Water is chemically benign. However, its interference in free gas exchange in soil becomes detrimental to crop growth when soils are subjected to waterlogging or plants are submerged with water.Waterlogging of soil refers to a soil condition when the soil attains a moisture regime to such an extent that oxygen is not available in the pore space in enough quantity for plant roots to respire adequately. On the contrary, detrimental gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulphide, ethylene etc. accumulate in the root zone and adversely influence the growth of plants. Thus, anaerobic condition prevails in waterlogged soil causing depletion of oxygen and increase of CO₂ in root zone, which severely affects aerobic micro-organisms while harmful organisms proliferate and restrict the plant growth. Waterlogging leads to nutrient deficiencies or nutrient toxicities, root tip decomposition and eventually, reduced growth or death of the plant. Physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil are also disturbed due to low temperature. However, this is important to note that plants differ among themselves in their demand for oxygen. Even oxygen demand for same plants differs with its growth stage. Therefore, it is well understood that there is no universal level of soil oxygen that can identify waterlogged conditions for all plants. Mostly waterlogging prevails in the land due to non-permeability of the soil material, the presence of an impervious layer in soil horizon, or a high-water table.

If the reader has endeavoured to follow the basic chemistry in the first chapter, he would be in a positions to follow up the various reactions that take place in soils and which hitherto had baffled him. Soils contain particles of various sizes ; some so fine that they would remain suspended in water for a long time; others so coarse that they would be sieved out by even a coarse sieve. Soils contain some salts that can be washed out by leaching with water; they contain some water which can be readily evaporated away by exposing to hot sun or by heating slightly. They also con-tain a little organic matter which can be burnt away or dissolved in alkali. When all the extraneous substances have been completely removed we are left with what we might call soil framework. This framework gives mechanical support to the roots of the plants. Without this framework the plant would not stand up even if it could be supplied with all the food material.

Let us suppose a soil freed from all the extraneous matter by continuous leaching with water or a dilute acid. In the former case the removal of all the extraneous matter is extremely slow, whereas by leaching with dilute acid everything except the soil framework is removed in a short time.

When soils from different localities are subjected to leaching with dilute acid we find that the soil framework in every case, behaves in a similar manner. No matter from what part of the world the soil has been obtained, the properties of its mineral framework only differ in quantity but not in kind.

Being an essential component of the rich Indian past, traditional dairy products and a sophisticated classification of confections have played a significant role in the Indian economy. Depending on how it is processed, it has significant social, cultural, and economic significance. These products have been developed over a long period using a combination of experience, traditional wisdom, and culinary skills. India is emerging as the highest milk- producing country in the world with an annual production of 221.1 million tons in the year 2021–22 (Source: Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, MoFAHD, DAHD, GoI). An estimated 50% of the milk produced in India is used to make a range of traditional dairy products, including paneer, dahi, ghee, khoa, and shrikhand. The product is not only well- established in the Indian market, but it also has significant export potential due to the large Indian diaspora living all over the world.

All native milk products that have developed over time using locally accessible technologies are referred to as traditional Indian dairy products or Indian indigenous milk products. The Indian masses’ economic, social, religious, and nutritional well- being are greatly influenced by traditional dairy products.

Classification of Traditional Indian Dairy Products

Traditional dairy products in India are typically made, packaged, and/or sold using time- honored methods without the use of machinery or meticulous documentation of the procedure. These products do, however, have several technological advantages, including their widespread appeal, reduced cost of production, straightforward manufacturing process, adoption at the rural level or collection center, large profit margin, and abundance of employment opportunities. These products are categorized according to the manufacturing principle.

Milk is the secretion of the mammary glands of animals. For human consumption, milk is that liquid obtained from the cow or the buffalo during the period following at least 72 hours after calving or until the milk is colostrums-free. It is a complex biological fluid consisting of seven main components: water, fat, protein, sugar (lactose), minerals, vitamins and enzymes. Milk is a white opaque fluid in which fat is present as an emulsion, protein and some mineral matters in colloidal suspension and lactose together with some minerals and soluble proteins in true solution. The opacity of milk is due to its content of suspended particles of fat, proteins and certain minerals. The colour varies from white to yellow depending on the carotene content of the fat. Skimmed milk is more transparent with a slightly bluish tinge. Milk of a good flavour has a pleasant, slightly sweet taste, and no odour. It is an excellent source of calcium, phosphorous and riboflavin. Vitamin A and D are currently added to whole milk, partly skimmed and skimmed milk.

7.1 What is Chemotaxonomy?
The approach of taxonomy in which chemical features of plants are used in developing classifications or in solving taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy, chemosystematics, chemical taxonomy, chemical plant taxonomy or plant chemotaxonomy. Some of the basic chemical features or evidentiary characters include alkaloids, flavonoids, carotenoids, polysaccharides, terpenoids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds, etc.
The chemical evidences are useful in establishing relationships among taxa is exemplified (Cronquist, 1980) by the (i) Presence of aromatic plants in Juglandales, (ii) Production of betalains and not anthocyanins by the members of caryophyllales, (iii) Presence of highly aromatic compounds in the members of Lamiaceae, (iv) Presence of alkaloids in Solanaceae, and (v) Presence of tanniferous plants in Sapindaceae.
7.2 Purpose of Chemotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomy has been used at all levels of the hierarchy of classification starting from the rank of ‘variety’ up to the rank of ‘division’ in plants. Moreover, chemical evidences have been used in all the groups of the plant kingdom starting from simple organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, up to the most highly advanced and specialized groups of angiosperms. These evidences are used in the classification of plants with two main purposes, (i) To develop such taxonomic characters which may improve the existing systems of plant classification and (ii) To develop the present day knowledge of phylogeny or evolutionary relationships of plants.

Chemotherapy in Parasitology deals with the treatment of disease caused by different parasites by specific drugs; meanwhile particular drug has got the particular action against the particular parasite. Recently chemotherapy is a extensively used and emerging branch for the control of different stages of parasites that is normally not killed by the conventional methods of treatment. Thus, chemotherapy plays an important role in the treatment and control of parasitic infections by avoiding the outcome of the danger of the disease by treatment of the affected animals. They should have the maximum parasitotrophic action and minimum organotrophic action. It is mainly divided into two types: 1) Rational therapy: It is a mode of treatment based on the pharmacological actions of drugs with relation to disease. 2) Supportive therapy: It is a method of treatment other than drugs, e.g. giving high protein diet in the oedematous condition such as bottle jaw in fascioliosis and amphistomiosis. The drugs used for the killing or complete removal of the parasites from the body of the host called antiparasitic drugs.

Chemotherapy is the procedure of treating a sick or infected plant using chemicals to kill the fungus. Chemotherapy has proven successful in very few circumstances. For example, plants have been treated with antibiotics to minimise the severity of “lethal yellowing” of palm trees caused by Phytoplasma and the decline of pears. Likewise, fungicides have been used to elm trees to mitigate the effects of Ophiostoma ulmi and O? neo-ulmi, the causative agents of Dutch elm disease. The chemotherapy drugs must, however, always be given repeatedly. Systemic fungicides like sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBIS), which partially penetrate plant tissues, eradicate recent infestations.

Chemotherapeutic fungicides are a class of systemic fungicides that have some plant mobility. They are capable of eliminating diseases even in parts of the plant that were not exposed to the chemicals. Unfortunately, pathogens develop resistance to systemic fungicides because they are site-specific

Q1. The nitrogen atom of amino group in basic structure of sulfonamide is designated as

1. N1
2. N2
3. N3
4. N4

Q2. Trimethoprim produces synergistic action by interfering the synthesis of

1. Dihydrofolic acid from tetrahydrofolic acid
2. Tetrahydrofolic acid from dihydrofolic acid
3. mRNA from DNA
4. tRNA from DNA

Q3. An ophthalmic sulfonamide is

1. Sulfaguinidine
2. Sulfadimidine
3. Sulfadimethoxine
4. Sodium sulfacetamide

Cherimoya is considered as the most esteemed of the fruits of the genus Annona (family Annonaceae). A. cherimola Mill., because of its limited distribution, has acquired few colloquial names, and most are merely local variations in spelling, such as chirimoya, cherimolia, chirimolla, cherimolier, cherimoyer. The cherimoya is believed to be indigenous to the interandean valleys of Ecuador, Colombia and Bolivia. It is cultivated in Australia, Hawai, Brazil, Mexico, India, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Spain, Costa Rica, Africa and Argentina. In India it is found growing in states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, (Nilgiris and Palani hills), Karnataka (the Nandi hills) and Andhra Pradesh (Telangana region).

It bears fruits with skin which is thin or thick, may be smooth with fingerprint-like markings or covered with conical or rounded protuberances. The sweet, juicy, white flesh is melting, subacid and very fragrant. The fruit is of a primitive form with spirally arranged carpels, resembling a raspberry. Each segment of flesh surrounds a single hard black bean-like seed.

Cultivars: Fingerprinted, Smooth, Tuberculate, Mammilate and Umbonate are the cultivars having different shapes, texture and morphology.

Uses

The flesh of the ripe cherimoya is most commonly eaten out of-hand or scooped with a spoon from the cut open fruit. It really needs no embellishment but some people in Mexico like to add a few drops of lime juice. Occasionally it is added to fruit salads or used for making sherbet or ice cream. Colombians strain out the juice, add a slice of lemon and dilute with ice-water to make a refreshing soft drink. The fruit has been fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage (Morton, 1987). In Jamaica, the dried flowers have been used as flavoring for snuff. All species of Annona can produce seed oil. Essential oils extracted from soursop (pulp) have industrial applications and the oils are also thought to improve the flavour of processed fruit products.

Genus   : Prunus
Species : avium cerasus, mahaleb L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16, 24, 32

Records indicate that cherries were in cultivation ever since the beginning of civilization. Cherries exhibit vast genetic variability as is evident from the different species which vary in their ploidy level. Sweet cherries (Prunus avium L) are diploid while sour cherries (P. cerasus, L.) are tetraploid, and commercially more important than the other species. Duke cherry has resulted from hybridization between sour and sweet cherry with intermediate tree and fruit characters. Successful cherry cultivation revolves around climatic factors, prime being the extent and spread of rainfall, variation in day and night temperature, occurrence of frosts, high heat day largely determine the type of cherry that will grow successfully in a particular areas. Hence cherry improvement around the world has so far been localized to few selected areas where different cherries have been successfully grown.

1. Introduction

Cherry is the common name of several Prunus species that include sweet cherry (P. avium), tart or sour cherry (P. cerasus), Duke cherry (hybrids between P. avium and P. cerasus). Sweet cherries are believed to have originated from the area between the Black and Caspian seas of Asia Minor. Birds probably carried the seed to Europe prior to human civilization. Cultivation was probably started by the Greeks and continued by the Romans. Its distribution and naturalization have proved extensive, for it is now found wild in areas as widely spaced as northern India, the southern plains of Europe and even on isolated islands such as Madeira. Climatic conditions are the most important limitations on cherry production. Being a deciduous tree, it needs a period of dormancy, which is initiated in temperate regions mainly by a fall in average temperatures in late autumn (Mir et al., 2017). Sweet cherry is grown almost everywhere in the temperate zone. It is a composite genus. Due to its origin, this genus needs warm and light conditions, but can also endure cold winter weather. It requires 550-600 mm precipitation annually. Sweet cherry prefers medium light (pH= 5.5–7.5), deep-layered soil, which is rich in nutrients. The root system of sweet cherry requires aeration and cannot tolerate slack water (Simon, 2004). Many areas of the world, although environmentally suited to cherry production, are currently unsuited to profitable cherry production due to high perishable nature of the fruit.

Prunus avium means “Bird Cherry” in the Latin language, is commonly known as ‘Sweet cherry’. Cherries have pleased the palates of food lovers for centuries. Their ruby-red colour and tangy taste won the hearts of kings, queens and noblemen in the history, making a special place for cherries on their tables. The ultimate celebration of cherries is the National Cherry Festival. It is held every year in July in the “Cherry Capital of the World”-Traverse City, Michigan. This festival originated from a spring ceremony known as the “Blessing of the Blossoms.” Thousands of visitors come from all over the world to celebrate the harvest and of course, eat cherries. A delicious fruit, cherry is rich in protein and sugars. Cherry is an excellent source of minerals like potassium, manganese, magnesium, iron, phosphorous and copper. Good amounts of vitamins (A, B, C and K) are found in cherries. They also contain anthocyanins, melatonin and fibers. It has more calorific value than apple. 

There are many cherry species, but only a few have been domesticated. The sweet cherry trees are large (30–40 feet tall) and usually pyramid shaped. Branches grow upright. The fruits are large, have a deep stem cavity, vary in colour from light yellow to dark red to purplish black. Flowers arise from clusters of 2 to 5 flowers on short spurs with multiple buds at tips; the distal bud develops into a leafy shoot. The flesh ranges in texture from tender to firm, and is sweet. Most sweet cherries are consumed as fresh fruit. The tart cherry, is sometime called “red cherry” or “sour cherry” and may have arisen from an unreduced pollen grain of Prunus avium crossed with Prunus fruiticosa. Trees are very cold hardy, but are shorter lived than sweet cherry. The fruit is relatively small, and have higher acid and lower sugar content than sweet cherry. Tart cherries are used for processing, jam, and pie filling. The Duke cherry is a hybrid of Prunus avium and Prunus cerasus and all gradations between the two species exist, but most varieties more closely resemble sweet cherry. Sweet cherries are the variety most often found in markets. They have a thick, rich, and almost plumb-like texture. Sour cherries are not usually eaten raw, but are widely used for making preserves, candy etc. Sour cherries are much smaller than sweet cherries and all varieties are self-fertile. Cherries are cultivated all over the world and the top 3 producers of cherry are Turkey, USA and Iran. The cultivated forms are of the species sweet cherry (Prunus avium) to which most cherry cultivars belong, and the another sour cherry (P. cerasus), which is used mainly for making preserve etc. Both species originate in Europe and western Asia; they do not cross pollinate. Some other species, although having edible fruit, are not grown extensively for consumption, except in northern regions where the two main species will not grow.

• Native to temperate regions of Northern Hemisphere.
• Chilling requirement – 2000-2700 hr, highest among temperate fruits.
• Heavy rainfall during flowering causes – Blossom wilt.
• Heavy rainfall during ripening causes fruit cracking.
• In Europe, a wine – ‘Kirschwasser’ is distilled from the pulp of cherries.
• Most of the commercial varieties of cherry are self-sterile.
• Seedling rootstock – Pazza, Mahaleb, Mazzard
• Clonal rootstock – Colt, Mazzard, F-12/1
• Cherry fruits are the first to appear in the market among temperate fruits.
• Cherry has more calorific value them apple.
• Donar vars: Stella, Vista, Vic, Seneca, Vega.

7.1 Introduction

Cherry is one of the important temperate stone fruits of the world. It is widely grown in the cooler climates where the span of winter is wide and very much pronounced. Sweet cherry is tall, attaining a height of 18 m, and pyramidal form. The branches are usually erect, and leaves are large, thin, variable pubescent beneath and coarsely serrated. Sweet (Prunus avium L.) and sour (P. cerasus L.) cherry ripen first among stone fruits followed by apricot, peach and plum. Sweet cherry comes first on the fresh market; hence, it is in high demand during late spring and early summer. Sweet cherry cultivars with red fruit colour lead the market while cultivars of yellow, white, or blush colour are in less demand. Sour cherries have smaller fruit size and are less firm than sweet cherries. The vast majority of the sour cherries are processed. The tree of sour cherry is usually 6-9 m tall, open headed, round topped or spreading and often without a central leader. The leaves are much smaller, dark green in colour and more numerous and trees are hardier than those of sweet cherry. Diameter of sour cherry fruit is about 2 cm.

• The chestnut is a nutritious low in fat and rich in Vitamin B.
• Freshly harvested nuts contain about 50% moisture, 40-42% carbohydrates, 2.9% proteins and about 1.5% fats.
• All cultivars of chestnut are self-sterile.
• The Chinese chestnut is the earliest tree to bloom. The flowers are produced in two kinds of catkins borne on current season shoot near the terminal portion of the shoot.
• Three nuts are usually produced in each bun (upper, left and right).
• Botanically, each nut is a complete fruit.
• The shell of the nut develops from the ovary wall.
• It is as hardy as peach and can withstand as low as -29°C temperature in deep dormancy.
• Some species of chestnut are used as rootstock for propagation.
• Chestnut is a highly cross-pollinated and hybrid seedling used as the rootstock is a possible cause of graft union failure in chestnut. Therefore, mixed hybrid strains should not be used as rootstock.

Genus : Castanea 
Species : avellana
Family : Fagaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24

Before the history was started to be written chestnut nuts in Japan and China were harvested, collected and eaten and aptly has been an important food for man around the world especially in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe and North America for hundreds of years. As early as 50 B.C., chestnut was brought to southern Europe by Greeks from Asia Minor and red Indians in North America prior to its discovery. Used nuts of chestnut was a staple food especially during famine times.

Genus Castanea has 13 species and belongs to the family Fagaceae which also has important forest plants like Oak (Quercus), and beech (Fagus). Species of this genus are grown for ornamental and also for their edible nuts. Three species of chestnut are economically important as they produce edible nuts, are highly variable and selection has been practiced for hundreds of years to select high yielding, large fruited type. The species other than C. dentata (American chestnut) are called ‘Chinkapins’.

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

Rice is the principal crop of the region and cultivated in 3.9 million hectares area with an average productivity of about 1.3 t ha-1, which is very low. Irrigation resources are limited and confined to only 26 per cent and utilized for rice crop only. The region has rice based cropping system, in which lathyrus (grasspea),  is grown as utera (relay crop) in 0.46 million hectares. However, its productivity is not more than 2 to 3 q ha-1. Pulse crops are cultivated in an area of 0.44 m ha in kharif and 0.81 m ha in rabi season. The main pulse crops of the region are lathyrus, black gram, pigeonpea, chickpea, horsegram (kulthi), lentil and field pea. Area-wise, urd in kharif and lathyrus in rabi occupy the top position but as far as productivity is concerned, pigeonpea and chickpea are important. Pigeonpea and chickpea together can contribute a lot in increasing the pulses production in region. The average productivity of pigeonpea is 5.19 q ha-1 . It is also grown on rice bunds, which may give an additional production of 0.06 mt. Mung and urd are grown throughout the year in the region, however, powdery mildew and yellow mosaic virus diseases pose severe threat to these crops.

We have seen the procedures of testing hypothesis about population parameters in chapter 11. Frequently our interest is to test whether a set of observed values are in agreement with those which would occur if some specified hypothesis were true. The X² statistic provides a measure of agreement between such observed and expected frequencies.

The X² distribution has a number of applications in testing of hypotheses. It is used to test, (1) the independence of attributes, (2) the  goodness of fit, (3) the homogeneity of variances, (4) the homogeneity of correlation coefficients, and (5) the linkage in genetic problems. For applying X² test procedure we have to use only the actual observed frequencies and not the percentages or ratios. Further, the samples should be independent and the observations within a sample should be non-overlapping. The expected frequency in each category should be more than 5. The number of observations should be large, say, more than 50.

12.1 Chi-Square Variate

The square of a standard normal variate is known as a chi - square variate or chi square statistic with one degree of freedom. Thus if , then the variate Z defined as 

Z is a standard normal variate with mean zero and variance unity (one) and  = Z² is a chi - square variate (statistic) with one degree of freedom.

In general if xi, (i=1,2,.......n) are n independent normal variates with means μ_i and variance , then  is a chi - square variate (statistic) with n degree of freedom. It is denoted by the notation  and follows chi-square distribution. Symbolically, it is expressed as .

12.2 Chi-Square Distribution

Let  be a chi - square variate with n degree of freedom. Then its probability density function is written as

12.1 Chi-Square Variate
The square of a standard normal variate is known as a chi – square variate or chi square statistic with one degree of freedom.

13.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The square of a standard normal variate is known as Chi-square variate with one d.f.

Q.2 If X ~ N(μ, σ²) and Z = (x - μ)/σ then Z² is known as Chi-square variate with 1.d.f.

Q.3 If Xi ~ N(μi, σi), i = 1,2,...., n are n independent normal variates then

Chi-square test is a non-parametric test as the null hypothesis does not contain any assumption regarding the population parameter. Chi-square is also written as c₂. In this chapter two uses of chi-square test will be dealt with. They are the following :

11.1 Introduction

Chi-square test is a non-parametric test. Such non-parametric tests have assumed great importance in statistical analysis and statistical inference because they are easy to compute and can be used without making assumptions about parameters as they are distribution-free tests.

Chi-Square

The Chi-square test (c₂) proposed by Karl Pearson in 1899 is used to measure goodness of fit of observed and theoretical or expected data and is a continuous distribution.

Formula for Chi-Square

1. General Formula

The general formula for Chi-square is as follows

Chia seed is an ancestral crop having fascinating history of 5500 years. It was the third most important grain of pre-columbian society. Chia seed is common name given to species of Salvia. Salvia hispanica, Salvia columbariae and Salvia polystachya are most important species among all Salvia seeds. Salvia belongs to family of Lamiaceaeis, first native to Mexico and later introduced to Spain by Hernan Cortes (Ortiz de Montellano, 1978), but in next 200 years 17 chia became virtually unknown to human and required research to establish the nutritional aspects of chia and reintegrate as food in modern diet.

Artificial insemination (AI) technology is one of the important managemental tools for the successful poultry industry. It has several uses and a few limitations also. This technique is performed to avoid the spread of venereal diseases by natural mating and to increase the dissemination of genetic material to a large number of birds. This technique include: semen collection, semen evaluation (physical and biochemical characteristics), semen dilution and preservation and deposition of semen in the female genitalia. Semen dilution is one of the most critical components of AI technology. Several suitable semen dilutors are reviewed for low temperature storage up to around 48 hours.

The ancient wisdom of the Indians about the value of pulses in human nutrition is perhaps, responsible to an extent for the widespread vegetarianism in our country. The staple pulse component in combination with cereals in our diet emanates from this recognition, Modern nutritionists also substantiate that this combination is superior to either pulse or cereal alone.

Chickpea, Cicer arietinum L, is the second most important pulse crop in the world. In India, it occupies prime position in terms of area, production and economic value and as an important constituent vegetarian diet. Chickpea is traditionally grown in many parts of the world covering Asia, Africa, Europe and North and South America. But the bulk of it is produced and consumed in South Asia and increasingly in Middle East as well as in some Mediterranean countries. Recently, chickpea cultivation started in Australia, Canada and USA mainly for export to south Asia. The cultivated species, Cicer arietinum L. (2n=16 and n=8), is characterized by possessing two distinct types-small and brown seeded known as desi type, and bold and white seeded known as kabuli type. The former is mostly cultivated in Indian sub-continent. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is also known by several common names viz., Bengal gram, Gram, Chhola, Hommes and Garbenzobean.

Chickpea provides 2-3 times more protein than many cereals, constituting a major component of the agrarian diet of the Indian sub-continent. Chickpea grains provide about 18-24% protein, 4-10% fat, 52-70.9% carbohydrate, 10-23% fibre, minerals and vitamins. Among essential amino acids lysine, methionine, threonine, valine, isolucine and leucine are major components of seed protein. It also contains considerable amount of vitamins such as B₁ and B₂, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and niacin also. Chickpea, therefore, plays an important role in human nutrition.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a self-pollinating diploid (2n=2x=16) with a genome size of 740 Mbp and belongs to family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae). In a scientific advance involving scientists from more than 20 research organizations, sequencing of the chickpea genome was recently completed for 90 chickpea genotypes, including several wild species. The researchers responsible for the work, led by ICRISAT, succeeded in identifying more than 28,000 genes and several million genetic markers that scientists expect will lead to the development of superior varieties.

All the above ground parts of the plant are affected. There is development of round and elongated spots surrounded by brownish red margin on the leafl ets. At later stage spots coalesce and entire leaf turns brown. On green pods, the lesions are usually circular with dark margin and pin head like dark dots representing the pycnidia in concentric circles.

Chicory (Cichorium intybus L. var. sativum D.C.) plant is the herbaceous, perennial plant and supposed to have descended from the wild chicory (wild succory, blue sailors) which is often seen along roadsides with its blue flowers. The leaves are used as salads in human diet and other different purposes. They were reported to be stomachic (Baumann 1982, Franke, 1981) and their juice was used against eye disease and poisoning. The infusion of chicory was believed to be good for the liver, kidney and stomach. Initially the wild plant was used but since approximately 300 B.C., the crop was cultivated for this purpose. Beverages, soups and sauces made of chicory were reported to be used in Italy and Belgium as early in 16^th century.

For the first time, the root of chicory was used as a substitute of coffee in 1690 in Holland followed by many other countries like Sweden, France, etc. During 1806 and 1813, the cultivation and use of roasted roots of chicory as coffee substitute spread over the whole European continent. In the 19^th century, the main centres of cultivation of chicory were North-East France, Belgium, England, Russia, Holland and Australia. Subsequently it was raised on large scale in Poland, Hungary, Germany, Switzerland and India. Presently over 20% of the World’s consumption takes place in Eastern Europe, especially in Poland (6%) followed by Russia, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia and East Germany. Twelve percent is reported to be consumed in South Africa, 9% in India and 2% in the United States (Clark and Macrae, 1987).

Chikungunya has been emerged as an important public health problem in the Indian Ocean Islands and India recently. Epidemiological, geographical and demographic data suggested that 1.38 million people were affected by the disease in India in 2006. The actual incidence of the disease may have been higher but underreporting did not reveal the actual picture. A large proportion of those who became ill consulted private health care professional or sought alternative medical care such as Ayurveda or homeopathy not included in the data collected by Govt. officials.

During the epidemic, rural hospitals, private and public clinics flooded with victims of Chikungunya. The virus did not kill its victims but inflicted considerable pain and misery besides local, regional and national financial burden towards health care. Only National Institute of Virology (NIV) and National Institute of Communicable Disease (NICD) provided accurate diagnosis of the disease. The Chikungunya assumed epidemic proportions because viral agent mutated, the vectors discovered the new ways to spread and the host lacked immunity to fight the disease. Modern transport systems - cars, buses, trains and aircraft particularly the movement of humans played a key role in spreading the disease that helped to maintain man-mosquito man cycle.

Etiology: First isolated in Tanzania in 1953, Chikungunya is under genus Alphavirus and family Togaviridae. It contains a single stranded positive sense RNA with a length of 12 Kb coding 4 non-structural (nspl - nsp 4) and 3 structural proteins (E1-E3). Among the structural protein, El protein correlates with serological response in human hosts and also modulates penetration of the virus in the mosquito species. Genetic analyses and historical accounts suggest that the Chikungunya virus originated in tropical Africa and subsequently evolved into 3 distinct genotypes - the East African, the West African and the Asian genotypes. The Asian genotypes have a high degree of nucleic acid sequence homology among themselves but the African strains exhibit wider sequence diversity and have been shown to undergo genetic micro-evolutions even during the course of an epidemic. Prior to the 2006 epidemic in India, the 3 genotypes were restricted to the geographical areas only. Previous outbreaks in India (1963 and 1973) were caused by the Asian genotypes, but the 2005 epidemic in the Indian Ocean Islands and the 2006 epidemic in India have been attributed to the East African genotype which arrived in India 5 years ago.

Children with developmental challenges may experience difficulties affecting physical movement, cognition, communication, learning, behaviour, sensory functioning or social participation. This chapter develops awareness of different disabilities, their characteristics, possible causes, assessment and educational implications. It covers intellectual disability, autism spectrum conditions, learning disabilities, hearing and visual impairment, speech and language problems, cerebral palsy and behavioural difficulties. Questions also examine inclusive and special education, early identification, intervention, rehabilitation, family support and the roles of teachers and professionals. Attention is given to government programmes, legislation and institutional services designed to protect children’s rights and promote their development, education, independence and inclusion within society.

It is a very important and commonly found disease of chili which observed in field as well as in storage. It is also known as anthracnose disease which is mostly seen in tropical and sub tropical regions.

Chilli or Pepper (Capsicum Sps.) originated in South America and spread into the New World tropics before subsequent introduction to Asia and Africa. Chillies are now widely grown throughout the tropics, sub-tropics and warmer temperature region of the world. The genus Capsicum is a member of the family Solanaceae.

Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thrips palmi: Thripidae

The adults of this insect are small brownish black with fringed wings. The nymphs are slender and yellowish straw coloured, later acquiring more brownish hue. They lacerate the tissues and feed on the exuding sap. Leaves become crinkled, curled upward and shed. The attack can be confused with chilli mosaic symptom.  In capsicum and chilli, they also feed beneath calyx of flowers and fruits causing flower/fruit drop and reduction in yield and market value of capsicum. Buds become brittle and drop down. Plants get stunted and bronzed. The fruits if at all formed are crinkled and small.

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) and bell pepper (Capsicum annuum var. grossum) are economically significant crops in India, known for their distinct attributes and culinary uses. Despite their shared progenitor, these crops exhibit varietal differences and require specific breeding strategies for hybrid seed production due to small flower size. The development of male sterile systems has revolutionized hybrid seed production, with the exploitation of Genetic Male Sterility (GMS) and Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS) in chilli and bell pepper breeding. The market for chilli seeds in India is substantial, driven by the demand for high-value hybrid seeds. This chapter comprehensively reviews the botanical characteristics, genetic resources, and breeding objectives in Capsicum species, emphasizing traits like disease resistance, high yield, and stress tolerance. It also highlights varietal achievements in public and private sectors, showcasing improved cultivars and hybrids with specific attributes. The integration of molecular markers in male sterile genes facilitates efficient hybrid seed production, ensuring genetic purity and quality. Additionally, the package of practices for seed production in chilli underscores the importance of isolation, field standards, inspection, harvesting, seed processing, and quality standards to maintain seed purity and viability.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Capsicum or chilli including paprika belonging to family Solanaceae, is a native of new world tropics and sub tropics. Within the genus Capsicum, mainly five species have been recognized as domesticated namely, Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens and C. pubescens. Most of the commercially cultivated chilli cultivars as well as paprika belong to the species C. annuum. The cultivated Capsicum was introduced to India and Southeastern Asia in the 17th century by the Portugese. The name Capsicum is possibly derived from the Greek word ‘Kapso’ meaning ‘to bite’ referring to the dominant pungency stimulated by the spice, while ‘Paprika’ means plants of the genus Capsicum, in the Hungarian language. ‘Paprika’, is defined in the world market as non-pungent (sweet) brilliant red ground Capsicum powder, derived from the thick flesh dried red pods, with most of the seeds and veins removed. Both chilli and paprika are widely consumed as vegetable and spice all over the world. Mostly, the cultivars grown in Asian countries are pungent, while less and non-pungent cultivars are more common in European countries. Chilli of commerce is the dried pod, while it was pericarp (outer skin of the dried fruit) for paprika.

1. Anthracnose or Fruit Rot and Die Back
Diagnostic Symptoms
The disease occurs in two forms: the die back and the ripe -rot Die back symptoms
• Small, circular to irregular, brownish black scattered spots appear on leaves.
• Severely infected leaves defoliate.
• Infection of growing tips leads to necrosis of branches from tip backwards.
• Necrotic tissues appear grayish white with black dot like acervuli in the center.
• Shedding of flowers due to the infection at pedicel and tips of branches.
Fruit symptoms
• Ripe fruits are more liable for attack than the green ones.
• Small, circular, yellowish to pinkish sunken spots appear on fruits.

1. Introduction

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is a major vegetable and spice crop due to its high consumption, nutritional and cash value to farmers and consumers. It is cultivated almost in whole world as consume in the form of green and red ripe fruits. China is the world leader in chilli production followed by India, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Thailand, and Turkey. India is the second largest exporter in the world of dry chilli and its powder. Fruits of chilli are used as fresh salad, cooked vegetable, pickles, souces hot spices in powder form (Parey et al., 2013) and having many medicinal values (Nadkarni, 1927). Fresh green fruits of peppers and red peppers are the major source of vitamin A, C and antioxidant compounds, besides these also found minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, iron, manganese, sodium, zinc and copper. 

I. FILL UPS

1. Dehydrated green chilli is a good source of _____.
2. Isolation distance adopted for chilli for foundation seed production is _____.
3. Seed rate of chilli is _____.
4. Spacing generally adopted for chillies are _____.

Chilli (Capsicum annuum, 2n = 2x = 24, family Solanaceae) also known as hot-pepper, classified as often-cross-pollinated crop is consumed both as fresh green and dry spice type. It is a rich source of vitamin C and pungency to the consumers and world food industries. The global area and production statistics often run into different figures due to inclusion of some times only fresh green chilies, sometimes red-dry chillies and sometimes inclusion of sweet peppers also in this broad category. The global production of fresh and dry chillies in 2014 has been reported to be 32.32 million tons where China alone accounted for 16.12 million tons followed by India with over 5 million tons of production. Other major countries growing chilli are Mexico, Indonesia, Spain, Turkey, USA, Korea, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nigeria, Thailand and Ethiopia. More than 65% of global green and dry chillies production is in Asia, while Europe contributes 12% and Africa around 10%. China is the leading producer of green and dry chillies, Area under chillies in China is less than that in India, but productivity is almost double than that in India.

Chilli or hot pepper, the Capsicum species (principally Capsicum annuum) under the family Solanaceae (Chromosome No. 2n =2x =24) is a tropical vegetable-cum spice crop commonly used throughout the world as spice for its pungency and red colour of ripe dried fruits and also for its green fruits for pungency and flavour.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
It is generally accepted that the Capsicum genus belonging to the family Solanaceae was originated in Bolivia which consists of 25–30 species. Five of these Capsicum species viz., C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens were domesticated. The largest group of varieties is found under C. annuum which is grown worldwide. Both hot pepper and sweet pepper belonging to the same species Capsicum annuum originated from the wild and weedy Capsicum annuum var. minimum distributed from the southern United States to the northern South America. The primary centre of origin of chilli is in southern and central America and secondar centre in Guatemala.

Capsicum species are members of family Solanaceae, which include tomato, potato, tobacco and petunia.  Pepper, chile, chili, aji, paprika and capsicum are used interchangeably for plants in the genus Capsicum.  The word Capsicum is reserved for taxonomic discussion (Bosland, 1992). The indigenous people of Americas evolved pepper through breeding and domestication of Capsicum species. Global diversification was facilitated by age of exploration, and subsequent establishment of land races and farmers selections.  Classical genetic and cytogenetic exploitation of Capsicum species began in 1940s and continued throughout the century (Poulos, 1994). Data on crossability and hybrid sterility are developed to reinforce or revise views on the rank of morphologically distinguishable taxa, while studies on chromosomes and isozymes aided in understanding the relationships between domesticated and wild species and the course of evolution within the domesticated species.

India is today the second largest producer of fruit and vegetable after China with a total annual production of 281.75 million tons in 2017-18. Fruit and vegetables are essential components of the human diet and nutrition constitute. Fruit and vegetable are also element of diversification in agriculture for additional income generating resource and employment generation area. Although India is the largest producer of fruit in the world, the production per capita is only about 100 g per day. Huge losses to the extent of 20 to 40% of the total production are reported due to lack of adequate infrastructure and transportation facilities and higher the transportation cost. Thus the per capita availability of fruits is further reduced to 60 -80 g per day which is almost half the requirement for a balanced diet. The fruit production in India has recorded a growth rate of 3.9%, whereas the fruit processing sector has grown at about 20% per annum. However, the growth rates have been extensively higher for frozen fruits and vegetables (121%) and dehydrated fruits and vegetables (24%).

Fruit and vegetables are mostly seasonal crops but they are demanded by consumers throughout the year. They are very highly perishable in nature, which is difficult to preserve for the longer period of time under ambient storage conditions. The low temperature storage retarded the activity of various biological and biochemical agents of spoilage and provides longer shelf life to the fruit and vegetables The temperature is brought down by taking out the heat with the help of mechanical refrigeration, This system is based on a liquid absorbing heat as it change to a gas. The more common mechanical refrigeration system use a refrigerant such as (Ammonia, Freon etc.,) takes out the heat from the chamber/ store as it is expand. The spoilage agents are microorganism such as (e.g., bacteria, yeast and molds etc.) and larva. Optimum storage temperature for most products is one slightly above the freezing point of the product. Some fruit and vegetables are particularly sensitive to storage temperature are susceptible to called storage disease when stored at temperature below as or above the critical temperature e.g.,