eChapters

Abstract

The abiotic stresses viz. drought, high temperature, water stress, salinity, heavy metal contaminations etc. cause variable effect on nitrogen (N) mineralization, its uptake and transport, assimilation and remobilization, and subsequently the growth and productivity of plants. The affect is generally negative, however, the magnitude of decrease in various processes is dependent on genotype, age of the plant, tissue under investigation, type and extent of the stress and other agro-climatic conditions. Biological nitrogen fixation and nitrate assimilation appear to be more sensitive than the ammonium assimilation possibly because re-assimilation of ammonia released in the tissue due to catabolism of N molecules is essential for the survival of plants. In addition, synthesis of stress metabolites (proline, glycine betaine and poly amines) is directly dependent on the availability of primary amino acid, glutamic acid. There are few well coordinated and detailed studies, determining the key factors involved in regulating NUE under abiotic stresses.

3a. Sources and problems of agricultural wastes
3b. Waste Reduction
3c. Waste Treatment
3d. Waste Disposal
3e. Clean Technology

Different Kinds of Agricultural Wastes
Table 1: Common Hazardous Wastes: Community Source

The various unit operations of food process engineering applied to solve the problem of changing the compositions of solutions, mixture and solids. Often these operations must be conducted on large scale to meet the demands of a large manufacturing plant. In food processes engineering these operations are often referred to as separation / concentration / extraction / purification process. Usually these operations are directed towards separating substances into its component parts or concentrating a particular substance from another.

Cashew research in India dates back to 1950’s when Indian Council of Agricultural Research sanctioned ad-hoc schemes in the then composite Madras, Travancore, Cochin and Bombay States. Thus, Kottarakkara (Kerala) in 1952; Ullal (Karnataka in 1953 and Vengurla (Maharashtra) in 1957 came into being as pioneering cashew centres in the country. More research schemes were started with ICAR’s assistance in 1955 at Bapatla (Andhra Pradesh) and in 1956 at Deragaon (now shifted to Kothiali) in Assam. During the period, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore and National Chemical Laboratory, Pune were also engaged in developing technologies for economic utilisation of cashew apple and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL). In the second phase of strengthening cashew research in India, the ICAR started All India Spices and Cashewnut Improvement Project in 1971 linking countrywide network among different research centres. Collection, conservation and evaluation of germplasm, hybridization and selection, vegetative propagation, and nutritional studies were the primary areas under this programme.

Maharashtra, the first state was to release cashew variety under the name Vengurla-1 through Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli in the year 1974. So far, 8 varieties have been released from Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla (M.S.), of which, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-6, Vengurla-7 and Vengurla-8 are widely accepted for commercial plantation.

Abstract

The Himalaya is one of the youngest and the richest mountain ecosystems encompassed with a variety of species of both flora and fauna. Varying in climatic conditions coupled with altitudinal gradients and unique topography leads to the formation of different types of forests, which varies from tropical to the temperate and alpine to no timber line zone and snow-clad meadows. The present study aimed to investigate the potential of medicinal plants growing in valleys and mountains of district Doda to cure various ailments of the local inhabitants including animal health care. A total of 113 species belonging to 104 genera and 55 families of angiosperms, gymnosperms and cryptogams (lycophytes and ferns) were recorded and reviewed from published documents used for treatment of different diseases in the regions. Out of the total 113 species, 17 species were of trees, 14 species were shrubs, 78 types of herbaceous plants and 4 species of climbers. Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Ranunculaceae, Polygonaceae, Solanaceae, Apiaceae, Pinaceae, Fabaceae and Berberidaceae were recorded as the dominant families of the study area. The data were collected while interacting with local people as they possess rich traditional knowledge regarding the use of different herbal plants and medicine.

Pants that tend to climb vertically on to supports are called climbers. reepers are plants that tend to creep or ramble over the ground or other surfaces spreading horizontally. These have showy flowers or decorative foliage. Climbers are conventionally used in gardens to cover fences, bare walls and tree trunks. They are used to provide ornamentation in a vertical aspect. Creepers on the other hand are used as ground covers and function as decorative elements in a horizontal aspect.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMBERS AND CREEPERS

Depending upon their habit, vigour, duration, nature of flowering, adaptations for climbing and shade tolerance, they can be classified as follows:

Mango (Mangifera indica L), the king of fruits, is cultivated throughout a wide range of frost-free climates (Litz 1998). It is commercially the most important fruit crop of India, accounting for more than 54% of the total mango production worldwide. The fruit of mango (Mangifera indica L.) is exceptional for its juicy, succulent, thick fruit pulp and nutrient abundance in terms of wide range of amino acids, sugars, organic acids, minerals including Ca, P, Fe, and K and vitamins. Out of several diseases which attack mango crop, mango malformation disease is a serious threat to its cultivation since it causes gross deformation of the vegetative and floral tissues (Ploetz et al., 2002; Kumar et al., 2011). Floral malformation is a major problem in mango, rendering mango cultivation unproductive in northern India and other regions of the world (Pandey et al., 1977; Ram, 1991).

Introduction

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is an important temperate nut crop grown in various parts of the world. It belongs to the family Juglandaceae and is commonly known as English walnut, Persian walnut, or common walnut. It has a chromosome number of 2n=32 (Kalia et al., 2016). Walnuts are a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids (Husain et al., 2013). The walnut fruit is a drupe that contains a nut surrounded by a hard shell. The nut is enclosed in a fleshy green or brownish-yellow hull, which splits open when the fruit is ripe. Walnut is an important nut crop due to its high nutritional value and medicinal properties. The kernel of the walnut is rich in protein, fat, and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. It also contains vitamins B1, B2, and E. In addition to being used as food, walnut has been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer (Liu et al., 2017). Walnut oil is rich in linoleic acid and is used in the production of cosmetics and soap. The leaves and bark of the tree are used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments such as diabetes, fever, and inflammation.

Marriage and family dynamics concern the structures, relationships, roles and processes through which families function and change. This chapter examines forms of marriage and family, mate selection, family authority, role allocation, communication, adjustment and decision-making. It considers changing family patterns, marital relationships, parenting styles, family life-cycle stages, conflict, divorce and the influence of social and cultural factors. Questions also address family welfare, interpersonal relationships, responsibilities, values and the challenges experienced by contemporary families. By connecting theoretical concepts with everyday family situations, the chapter helps learners understand how individuals and families adapt to transitions, maintain relationships and promote the well-being of their members.

Metabolic diseases assume the greatest significance in dairy cows and buffaloes during transition period, and occur due to imbalance in input and
output of production. The main reasons of occurrence of metabolic diseases are an imbalance between the rate of ‘input’ of dietary nutrients and ‘output’
of production.

Modern agriculture prioritizes intensive crop production in a sustainable manner to meet the growing demand for food. However, the increasing prevalence of biotic stresses such as fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens, along with insect pests and nematodes, poses a serious threat to agricultural productivity. Conventional pest management practices, rely heavily on synthetic chemicals, that have raised concerns due to environmental toxicity, pest resistance, and health risks. Consequently, scientific community is shifting their focus to ecofriendly alternatives to ensure agricultural sustainability. Plant growth-promoting microorganisms, as bioinoculants have gained widespread recognition for their potential to enhance plant development and reduce the harmful effects of agrochemicals. Despite their promise, the field application of bioinoculants remains limited due to poor shelf-life, rapid degradation and instability under field conditions. The integration of nanotechnology with microbial inoculants, referred to as nanobioinoculants, offers an innovative and sustainable solution to these limitations through the development of smart products, and efficient delivery systems. This chapter highlights the functional synergy between nanomaterials and bioinoculants, integration strategies, mechanisms of action, and their role in managing biotic stresses. Nanobioinoculants, including biogenic nanomaterials, nanobio conjugates, and encapsulated bioinoculants offer enhanced plant protection by producing antimicrobial compounds and

Animal husbandry faces increasing pressure to produce safe milk, meat and eggs while improving animal welfare and reducing environmental impacts. Traditional observation-based management is increasingly inadequate for large and complex livestock systems. This chapter introduces digital transformation through Precision Livestock Farming, which combines IoT devices, smart sensors, wearables, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning and digital twins. Continuous animal-centred data enables timely decisions concerning health, reproduction, feeding, behaviour and welfare. The chapter explains how digital technologies can support early disease detection, efficient resource use and improved productivity across commercial and smallholder farms, creating more profitable, sustainable and welfare-conscious livestock systems.

Riboflavin or Vitamin B₂
Introduction

Riboflavin (synonymous with lactoflavin, vitamin G and vitamin B2) is a yellow green, fluorescent, water soluble pigment widely distributed in plant and animal cells. The organic formula of riboflavin is (6, 7-dimethyl)-9-(D,1-ribtyl)-iso-alloxazine. The empirical formula is C₁₇H₂₀N₄O₆. Riboflavin is very sensitive to both visible and ultraviolet light. All manipulations with riboflavin or riboflavin containing materials should be carried out in subdued light or in low actinic glassware. Even subdued daylight may be destructive but artificial light of an intensity of 6 candles per squarefeet or less is permissible. Irradiation of alkaline solutions yields lumiflavin (6, 7, 9-trimethylis-alloxazine) and in acid solutions lumich rome (6.7 dimethyl alloxazine) is formed, which is characterised by a blue fluorescence. One of the distinguishing properties of riboflavin is its yellow-green fluorescence in neutral solutions which reaches a maximum at pH 6.7 to 6.8.

Techniques to Conduct Digestion Trial Under Stall Conditions

Digestibilty definition. The digestibility of a food is most accurately defined as that  proportion which is not excreted in the faeces and which is , therefore, assumed to be absorbed by the animal. It is commonly expressed in terms of dry matter and as a percentage, the digestibility coefficient. For example, if a cow ate 11 kg of hay containing 10 kg of dry matter and excreted 4 kg dry matter in its faeces, the digestibility of the hay dry matter would be

Laboratory and exotic pets require specialized handling because their anatomy, behaviour and physiological characteristics differ considerably from conventional domestic species. This chapter covers restraint, physical examination and medication of laboratory animals, birds and exotic pets, including reptiles. Physical examination involves systematic evaluation from head to tail, assessment of oral and external structures, palpation and measurement of physiological parameters. Special attention is given to reptile examination, where shells and species-specific anatomy may complicate physical assessment. Diagnostic imaging can be particularly valuable. The chapter emphasizes minimizing stress, selecting appropriate restraint methods and adapting clinical procedures to species-specific requirements.

Supply chain management (SCM) is essential for the food industry because it involves the coordination and management of various activities from food procurement to consumption. The food supply chain is complex and involves many stages, from the production of raw materials to packaging, distribution and sales. Therefore, effective food supply chain management is essential to ensure that food products are delivered to consumers efficiently, cost-effectively and with maximum food safety.
One of the biggest challenges in food chain management is food safety. Foodborne illness is a major concern and food manufacturers must implement strict quality control measures at every stage of the food supply chain. This includes testing and monitoring for pathogens, maintaining proper storage and transportation conditions, and ensuring that all equipment is cleaned and  disinfected to prevent contamination.
Another challenge is food waste. Food products have a limited shelf life and Managing inventory levels is essential to minimize waste and spoilage. Effective food supply chain management requires careful planning and coordination between suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and retailers to ensure that products are delivered to consumers before their expiration date.
Efficient management of logistics and transportation is another essential aspect of supply chain management. Food products often travel long distances before reaching consumers, and companies need to ensure that products are delivered to customers quickly and efficiently. This requires careful planning and coordination of transportation routes, scheduling, and delivery times to minimize delays and disruptions.

Introduction
Urban sustainability has become a critical focus as the global population increasingly concentrates in cities. With over 56% of the world’s population residing in urban areas, cities are significant drivers of economic growth and innovation but also contribute disproportionately to environmental degradation, resource depletion, and social inequities. Urban sustainability aims to balance economic, social, and environmental dimensions, ensuring that cities are livable, resilient, and capable of meeting the needs of current and future generations. Information Technology (IT) is pivotal in advancing urban sustainability by enabling smarter resource management, reducing environmental footprints, and fostering inclusive and equitable development.

Karnataka is India’s eighth largest state in geographical area covering 1.92 lakh sq km and accounting for 6.3% of the geographical area of the country. As per the population Census 2011, agriculture supports 13.74 million workers, of which 23.61 per cent are cultivators and 25.67% agricultural workers. A total of 123,100 km² of land is cultivated in Karnataka constituting 64.6% of the total geographical area of the state (Table 1). Of the total cultivated area in the state, about 33.0% is covered by cereals, 42% by pulses and 19% by oilseeds and 6.0% by commercial crops (Savitha and Kunnal, 2015). Agriculture employs more than 60% of Karnataka’s workforce. The large portion of agricultural land in the state is exposed to the vagaries of monsoon with severe agro-climatic and resource constraints.

Financial modeling is one of the most highly valued, but thinly understood, skills in financial analysis. The objective of financial modeling is to combine accounting, finance, and business metrics to create a forecast of a company’s future results. A financial model is simply a spreadsheet, usually built in Microsoft Excel, that forecasts a business’s financial performance into the future. The forecast is typically based on the company’s historical performance and assumptions about the future and requires preparing an income statement, balance sheet, cash flow statement, and supporting schedules (known as a three-statement model, one of many types of approaches to financial statement modeling). Financial modeling skills are essential for anyone pursuing a career in finance. Models synthesize a vast amount of information to help users make better investment and business decisions. The modeler’s technical acumen