eChapters

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the growing of plants from meristematic tissue (or) somatic cells of superior plants on nutrient media under controlled conditions.
2. _____ is a group of undifferentiated palnt cells.
3. Explants used is _____ in shape.
4. Meristem forms _____ at its cut end on which a large number of shoot primordia develop.

Floriculture has flourished with a considerable growth and a useful crop diversification option, particularly for small farmers over the past three decades. The commercial production of the cut greens has started in India in recent years and has huge demand in the market. They are suited for year round production with low investment and less care and maintenance. Cut greens or fillers are an important component of the floricultural industry and their commercial value depends on vegetative characters, such as stem length, leaf colour, density and side branching. Cut foliages (leaves and stems), which are attractive in form, colour and freshness, are lasting and in great demand. They have various other uses in making attractive fresh floral designs and floral arrangements, such as bouquets, wreaths, decoration of house interiors, etc. Evergreen plants with green, silver or variegated leaves are usually used and species with berries are now also becoming popular. Fillers are critical components in most arrangements as the flowers themselves,used to increase the volume and size of the bunch and provide colour contrast. These floral produce have various other uses in making attractive fresh floral designs and floral arrangements, such as bouquets, wreaths, decoration of house interiors, etc. Colour, freshness, stem length, freedom from pests, fragrance and vase life are important quality aspects of fillers. In the International market, fillers accounts for about 16 percent of the total trade by volume with an annual turnover of more than Rs 800 crores including selling of ornamental leaves, filler flowers, dry and dyed flowers along with berries and capsules. On the contrary, fillers representvery less quantum with poor quality in the domestic market and are unsuitable for cut flower bouquets. Their share in the market is very low and fetches nominal rates.

Advertising plays a crucial role in modern business, influencing consumer behavior and shaping market trends. However, the power of advertising necessitates a framework of laws and ethical guidelines to ensure that messages remain truthful, fair, and socially responsible. This chapter explores the legal and ethical considerations in advertising, highlighting key regulations, ethical principles, and real-world implications.

Guava is a fast growing evergreen shrub or small tree that can grow to a height of 3-10 m. It has a shallow root system. Guava produces low drooping branches from the base and suckers from the roots. The trunk is slender, 20 cm in diameter, covered with a smooth green to red brown bark that peels off in thin flakes. Young twigs are pubescent. The leaves grow in pairs, opposite each other. The leaf blade is elliptic to oblong in shape, 5-15 cm long x 3-7 cm broad, finely pubescent and veined on the lower face, glabrous on the upper face. The flowers are white in colour, about 3 cm in diameter, solitary or in 2-3 flower clusters borne at the axils of newly emerging lateral shots. The fruit is a fleshy, pyriform or ovoid berry that can weigh up to 500 g. The skin colour is yellowish to orange. The flesh can be white, yellow, pink or red, sour to sweet, juicy and aromatic. The fruit contains a variable number of seeds (about 3-5 mm long) and its mesocarp is characterized by the presence of small (0.1 mm) and hard fibrous structures called stone cells (sclereids), which may cause damage to processing machinery (Toma & Luchian, 2019).
3.1 Reproductive Biology and Pollination
Research on breeding systems in Psidium focuses primarily on P. guajava, which is an allogamous species characterized by an open pollination reproductive cycle. Nevertheless, self-pollination can occur. Bee-pollination, in which pollen is the sole reward, is the dominant pollination system in Psidium. Species of the superfamily Apoidea are important pollinators of both P. guajava and P. guineense. Both species are also pollinated by the European honeybee, Apis mellifera. Psidium guyanense, P. nutans, P. rostratum, and P. rutidocarpum lack comprehensive studies of their breeding systems, pollination, and dispersal (Sarkar & Sarkar, 2022).

14.1. Slope
It is a crucial topographic factor that affects water drainage, erosion and accessibility of agricultural machinery. Steep slopes increase the risk of soil erosion, and water run-off requiring erosion control measures such as contour ploughing or terracing. Slope also affects the availability of sunlight, as steeper slopes may cast shadows and influence microclimates within a field.
14.2. Altitude / Elevation
Elevation is the vertical distance of a point or location above a reference point, often mean sea level. It influences temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the types of crops that can be grown in an area. Higher altitudes generally experience cooler temperatures, which may limit the choice of crops that can thrive. Elevation affects the length of the growing season and influences the choice of appropriate crop varieties. In summary, elevation is an absolute measure of the vertical distance above a reference point (such as MSL), while it is a relative measure that describes the variation in elevation within a specific area or region. Elevation provides information about the height of a point, whereas it provides insights into the topographic features and slopes of a given agricultural landscape. Both elevation and relief are important considerations in agriculture as they influence factors such as water drainage, temperature gradients, and suitability for specific crops.
14.3. Aspect
Aspect refers to orientation of the slope (north, south, east or west). It affects the distribution of sun light; wind patterns and temperature gradients in a field. In the northern hemisphere, the north side of slope is often shaded while the southern side receives more solar radiation and heat, creating warmer microclimates and potentially influencing the choice of crops or planting strategies. Aspect can also impact the risk of frost or cold air drainage in certain regions. Whereas, in the southern hemisphere, the south side slopes get shaded and north facing slopes receive more solar radiation.
14.4. Relief
Relief refers to the variation in altitude between different points. It is a relative measure on changes in altitude across a particular landscape or agricultural area. The valley slopes are preferred sites for agriculture in mountain regions due to several reasons:
• The valley slopes offer relatively flatter terrain, making it easier for farming activities such as cultivation, irrigation and mechanization.
• The valleys tend to have better access to water resources such as rivers or streams which can be used for irrigation water.
• The valley slopes provide good sun exposure and protection from strong winds creating favourable microclimates for crop growth
• The natural drainage patterns of valleys help preventing water logging and ensure better water management.

This chapter examines the major forms and mechanisms of immunity. It distinguishes innate immunity from adaptive immunity and explains specificity, diversity, immunological memory and self–non-self recognition. Natural and artificial forms of active and passive immunity are discussed through examples involving infection, vaccination, maternal antibodies and antiserum administration. The chapter introduces pattern-recognition receptors, pathogen-associated molecular patterns and Toll-like receptors involved in microbial recognition. It also covers inflammation, its cardinal signs, acute-phase proteins and the roles of neutrophils and other innate defence components. These objective questions provide a clear foundation for understanding how animals resist infections and develop long-lasting protective immune responses.

AI is a viral disease affecting the respiratory, enteric or nervous system of many kinds of birds. The most virulent form is an acute, generalized disease characterized in poultry by a short course and extremely high mortality.

1. MINIMUM SEED CERTIFICATION STANDARDS

In a seed quality control programme through seed certification, the minimum seed certification standards, in fact, are the minimum standard conditions which must be met. The minimum seed certification standards, thus are the standards required for the certification of seeds by the certification agencies.

The minimum seed certification standards can be broadly grouped into two groups.

Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore

Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR), Varanasi

Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicut, Kerala

Central Institute of sub-tropical Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow

Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture (CITH), Srinagar

Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Kufri, Shimla

Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) Kasargod, Kerala

Central Institute of Arid Horticulture (CIAH), Bikaner, Rajasthan

Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology (CIPHET), Ferozepur, Punjab

Key Points

• Frostbite occurs when exposed to freezing temperatures. Animals that are weak and malnourished are more likely to be injured.

• It is a prevalent condition throughout the winter, particularly in animals who do not have shelter or have inadequate protection to protect them from the cold.

• Excessive cold can harm skin and subcutaneous tissue. In severe circumstances, injuries may be irreversible.

Introduction

Frostbite, also known as freezing cold damage, is caused by prolonged exposure to temperatures below 0º C. Exposure to freezing temperatures causes excessive heat loss, disrupting the body's heat balance and resulting in systemic or local acute freezing injury. Frost bites cause superficial tissue injury, but in extreme cases, gangrene develops in the joint or synovial sheath, and the animal dies from toxemia. However, all animal species are susceptible. It occurs rarely in healthy and well-nourished animals. Animals that have lost their coats or are malnourished are particularly vulnerable to harm. Prolonged exposure to colder temperatures increases the risk of frostbite and the severity of the injury. In the majority of cases, frostbite occurs in animals that are left in winter.

Development of Plant Body

A vascular plant begins in existence as a morphologically simple unicellular zygote (2n). The zygote develops into the embryo which in the long run develops into the mature sporophyte. The development of the sporophyte (2n) involves division and differentiation of cells and organization of cells into the tissue systems. The embryo of the seed plant possesses relatively simple structure as compared to the mature sporophyte. The embryo bears a limited number of parts containing generally only axis bearing one or more cotyledons. The cells and the tissues of this structure are less differentiated. However, the embryo grows further, because of the presence of the meristems, at two opposite ends of the axis, of future shoot and root. After germination of the seed during development of the shoot and root new apical meristems appear which cause a vegetative growth and reproductive stage of the plant attained.

Fundamental Parts of the Plant Body

The plant body consists of a number of organ i.e., root, stem, leaf and flower. Each part has different functions for plant growth.Flower consists of sepal, petals, stamens, carpels and sometimes also sterile members. Each organ is made up of number of tissue systems; each tissue system consists of number of tissues. Tissue consists of group of cells that are alike in origin, structure and function.

Analysis of Symptoms

Symptoms are deviation from a state of health perceptible to by the patient, people around and the doctor/veterinarian. Symptoms can be physical and mental. Symptoms narrated by the patients are subjective and observed by the doctor / veterinarian are objective. Animals lack subjective symptoms. The word analysis means “careful examination of the different parts or details of something.” According to Castro “The act of resolving or reducing or breaking the whole in to pieces or groups is called analysis”. When analyzing a case, the value of symptoms is taken in to consideration on several points such as personality, and categories of symptoms as subjective, objective, general, common and uncommon symptoms. Symptom analysis gives an opportunity to learn when the symptoms developed, the feeling that those circumstances evoked the symptoms, and the ways in which those symptoms may have served some useful purpose to the patient. The main purpose of analysis is to identify the prescribing symptom in the given case.

Advertising is a crucial component of any marketing strategy. It helps businesses communicate their value proposition to their target audience, build brand awareness, and drive sales. However, effective advertising requires a well-thought-out strategy. In this chapter, we will explore the essential steps to creating an effective advertising strategy for marketing success. Step 1: Define Your Objectives Before launching any advertising campaign, it is essential to establish clear objectives. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Common advertising objectives include: • Increasing brand awareness • Generating leads • Driving sales or conversions • Enhancing customer engagement

Introduction
• Biosphere: Living things and the non-living systems that support them in their surroundings are intricately linked and mutually influence one another. Living things inhabit a comparatively small sphere that spans the surface of the globe, measuring less than 20 km in thickness and spanning roughly 8 km above and 10 km below sea level. The biosphere is the thin layer of soil, water, and land that covers the surface of the world. The land (lithosphere), the water (hydrosphere), and the air (atmosphere) are its three non-living constituents.
• Lithosphere: The solid portion of the earth is made up of the rocks and soil found both underneath and on the surface. About 4.6 billion years ago, a hot ball of substance gave rise to the earth and the lithosphere. Just eight of the 92 elements that make up the lithosphere are frequently found in crystal rocks. Of these components, 47% are oxygen, 28% are silicon, 8% are aluminum, and 5% are iron. The other ingredients are calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, each making up 4%. When rocks break down, they create soil, which is what humans need for agriculture.
• Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere is the area of the earth that is covered in water. It encompasses 0.7 of the planet’s area. Only a minorportion  of the hydrosphere is made up of fresh water; the majority of the hydrosphere is made up of the marine ecosystem

In pigs, making a diagnosis of disease is no way different from that of other species. It is based on assessing the owner’s complaint, history of the farm and the ailing pig, signalment factors, detailed observations of the ailing pig, the other pigs in the group and their environment, detailed physical examination. These observation may lead to a provisional diagnosis. Further clinical tests, clinical pathology and a post-mortem examination of the dead pigs are to be taken up to confirm or refute the provisional diagnosis. Because pigs are kept in groups and owing to infectious nature of many diseases, the health of other pigs in the group should also be taken into account. History and General Examination General examination of swine is conducted without handling them. The physical examination of swine includes history taking, examination of environment, examination of group of swine, post mortem examination

Hybrid Seed Production Technology At a Glance

Introduction

Musa species and cultivars are identified mainly on the basis of morphological characters. Somatic mutations and changes brought about by environment are major obstacles to the accurate identification of clones (Kaemmer et al., 1992). Isoenzymatic markers provide an additional tool for the characterization of germplasm and have been successfully employed in banana to provide better understanding of somaclonal variants and to detect genetic differences at clonal level.

Being located within the center of diversity of cultivated banana, the South Indian state of Kerala accounts for a large share of variability, especially the AA, AB, AAB and ABB genomic groups.Nendran, the French plantain cultivar indigenous to Kerala (Jacob, 1952) is represented by many ecotypes/clones. Other prominent cultivar groups include Mysore (AAB), Rasthali (AAB), Neypoovan (AB), Kunnan (AB), Monthan (ABB) and Karpooravalli (ABB). The variability has been collected and conserved in the field at the Banana Research Station, Kannara. These have been characterized morphologically employing per INIBAP/IPGRI Musa descriptors, facilitating the identification of distinct cultivars, clones and synonyms.This project was initiated to survey the isozyme polymorphism in the cultivar groups and to select suitable system for clonal identification.Results of the study employing three enzymatic systems -esterase, diaphorase and peroxidase are presented

(AE; Epidemic Tremor; Infectious Avian Encephalomyelitis)

AE is a viral infection of chickens, turkeys, pheasants and cortunix quail characterized in young birds by ataxia progressing to paralysis and, usually, by tremors of the head and neck. Infected adults usually show no signs. AE is world wide in distribution.

A variety produced by crossing inter se a number of genotypes selected for good general combining ability in all hybrid combinations with subsequent maintenance of the variety by open-pollination. Synthetics development is common in cross- pollinated crops in the early phases of breeding. The synthetic method of breeding is suitable for improving cross-fertilized crops. It is widely used to breed forage species. Successful synthetic cultivars have been bred for corn, sugar beets, and other species like cauliflower in India. The suitability of forage species for this method of breeding stems from several biological factors. Forages have perfect flowers, making it difficult to produce hybrid seed for commercial use. The use of male sterility may facilitate controlled cross-pollination, which is difficult to achieve in most forage species. To test individual plants for use in producing the commercial seed, it is essential to obtain sufficient seed from these plants. The amount of seed obtained from single plants of these species is often inadequate for a progeny test. Furthermore, forage species often exhibit self-incompatibility, a condition that inhibits the production of selfed seed. Synthetic cultivars are also used as gene pools in breeding progeny. Synthetic cultivars are advantageous in agricultural production systems where farmers routinely save seed for planting. One of the well-known and widely used synthetic has been the Iowa stiff- stalk synthetic (BSSS) of maize.