eChapters

Price determination under perfect competition - It can be called as a market structure characterized by a complete absence of competition or rivalry among the individual firms. The sellers and buyers cannot determine the price, only the Industry decides the price of the goods. It means the forces of supply and demand determine the price of the goods

Perfect competition is defined as a market situation where there are a large number of sellers of a homogeneous product. An individual firm supplies a very small portion of the total output and is not powerful enough to exert an influence on the market price. A single buyer, however large, is not in a position to influence the market price.

Demand under perfect competition

Demand refers to the quantity of a product that consumers are willing to purchase at a particular price, while other factors remain constant. A consumer demands more quantity at lower price and less quantity at higher price. Therefore, the demand varies at different prices. Market demand means the sum of the quantity demanded by individual buyers at different prices.

The importance of Plant Pathology has been realized over the years owing to number of crop failures in different parts of the world. Plant disease control is indispensable for qualitative production and to compete in global agricultural trade. There is great need of sensitization of our research in various aspects which shall guide the generation to come for managing plant diseases not only for enhancing crop production but also in facilitating trade by conserving the biodiversity and environment.

Research Trend in Plant Pathology

Like in other sciences, there has been a change in the trend of research in Plant Pathology with passage of time. Up to the late 1960s most of the interest in plant pathology was concentrated in crop diseases mostly caused by fungi. Physiology of microorganisms and physiology of parasitism became increasingly popular fields of interest in 1960s.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ works on the principle based on gravitational force
2. Gamet divider is otherwise known as_____.
3. Gamet divider works on the principle based on_____.
4. _____ method is suitable for seeds requiring working samples upto 10grams and seeds not chaffy and do not bounce and roll.

Locusts are injurious to man as it destroys several human commodities. Locusts are phytophagous and feed on several plants cultivated by man. The locusts are insects belonging to the order orthoptera. The most popular insect is grasshopper. The only difference between the two types of insects is that locust can exist in two different behavioural states whereas grasshoppers do not. When the population density is low locusts behave as individuals, much like grasshopper. As the population density is high locusts gregariously behave as band of nymphs or swarms of adults. The changes in body shape and colour and in fertility, survial and migratory behaviour are accompanied by phase change. The most important locust species is the desert locust (Schistocerca-gregaria). The international pest influences various parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. Other locust species are highly injurious to mainkind like Bombay locust and Indian migratory locust (Locusta- migratoria) found all over India in its solitary phase. The monsoon months in July and August suitable are for locust multiplication conditions. The new generation produced migrate eastward into the Indian desert areas in May and June.

“SOIL” the term is derived from Latin word “solum” which means, “floor”. Soil has been a defining component of humanity since the beginning of civilization. It holds the clues of past cultures, it supports the web of life connecting all ecosystems, provides materials to build houses, and provides the base for our food, feed, fiber and even some biofuels.

Soils are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and countless organisms that are the decaying remains of once-living things. It forms at the surface of land and is the “skin of the earth.” Soil is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life on earth. There are several general roles that soils play:

1. Village market is based on the classification of ________________

a) Volume of transaction

b) Location

c) Time span

d) Area coverage

2. Regional Markets are based on ___________

a) Location

b) Time span

c) Area coverage

d) Volume of transaction

3. The prices of commodities are controlled mainly by the extent of demand for the commodity rather than the supply of the commodity.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in the Mediterranean basin and spread to rest of world by both natural and artificial means.

• USA - major producer of pepper mint and spear mint

• Bergamot mint - native of Europe and naturalized in eastern USA

• Grows successfully in temperate and subtropical region of India.

• India - Japanese mint - Terai region, extending to parts of Indo Gangetic plains and parts of Punjab in North-Western India.

7.2. Economic importance

7.2.1. Japanese mint or corn mint or field mint (M. arvensis), 2n: 36, 72.

Migration is inevitable in the process of economic development (Afsar, 2003; Ballard, 2005). There exists a two-way causation between migration and economic development. Migration induces economic development while economic development induces further migration. Migration can be two types: international migration and internal migration. International migration deals with migration across the countries of the world, while internal migration deals with migration within the national boundary of a country (Zohry, 2005). There are four streams of internal migration which are rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-rural, and urban-urban. Among these four streams, rural-urban migration has certain distinct characteristics which affect developmental aspect of both places involved namely, place of origin and place of origin and place of destination. It is well known that developmental disparities between rural and urban triggers rural-urban migration. People generally migrate from less developed rural countryside to more developed urban centers they left farming and engaged in modern works which are more profitable and low risk oriented (Bhattacharya, 1993; de Haan, 1997). The impact of migration can be assessed in several ways; therefore welfare impacts, social impacts, economic impacts etc. For example, remittance send by the urban migrants to their native villages help them to evade poverty; increase consumption; invest more in agriculture, education, health. Remittances have certain social impacts as well.

Precipitation and agglutination reactions are similar except in that for precipitation reaction antigen must be in soluble form. The precipitation reaction is highly specific and very sensitive for the detection of antigen being capable of demonstrating antigens in dilutions of 1:100,000 to 1: 1,000,000 or more. It is important to bear in mind that antigens used in precipitation reactions are of molecular size not cellular. A soluble antigen reacted with its homologous antibody at the optimum proportions produce an insoluble precipitate. The essential ingredients for precipitation test are soluble antigen (precipitinogen), antibody (precipitin) and an electrolyte (normal saline).
a) Precipitation ring test
The antigen is carefully layered over the antiserum, without mixing so that an interface is formed. Diffusion of each reagent will then occur into the other. If the system is homologous, precipitation will occur at the point in the tube, where the proper ratio of antigen to antibody is reached. Eg: Ascoli’s test for anthrax diagnosis.
In advanced decomposition of animals when cultures would be almost impossible, the precipitation method of Ascoli is used for diagnosis of Anthrax. This method is a mixing of immunized rabbit serum with an extract of organs under examination for the production of a precipitate.
Procedure
1. Grind up organs or blood of suspected animals.
2. Suspend in saline.
3. Boil for five minutes
4. Filter through filter paper and allow to cool
5. Carefully stratify 0.5 ml of this extract on 0.5 ml immune serum in small test tubes.

The Myrtaceae family tree, the guava (Psidium guajava L.), is grown in tropical climates all over the world and bears fruit in the summer, autumn and winter. Guavas are widely grown in Mexico, Brazil, India, and other countries. They have climacteric respiration patterns. Harvested at different maturities, it frequently causes early senescence because to its quick ripening within 1-2 days after physiological maturity. The fruit has notable losses (20–30%) during handling, storage, and transportation because to its thin peel, high moisture content, and inadequate post-harvest infrastructure. Though processing levels in the nation are still low, effective post-harvest management techniques can reduce these losses, improve fruit availability, and even increase processing. Product quality may be increased by better preservation methods and adherence to hygienic guidelines (Basak & Chakraborty, 2020).
18.1 Maturity Indices
The ideal consumption stage, which varies depending on the type, determines when to harvest guava. Fruits should be collected at the mature, hard stage before any symptoms of ripening if they are to be consumed when still green. Harvesting for those intended to be soft and ripe happens when a noticeable green to yellow colour shift and initial softening are observed. Postponing harvesting to a more mature stage might lead to a rise in fruit fly infection. In green fruit, the Soluble Solids Content (SSC) varies from 3% to over 10%, whereas the Titratable Acidity (TA) varies from 0.2 to 1.5%. Variations in seasonal acidity are possible, but cultivar sweetness and acidity are distinct (Ghosh & Gupta, 2015).
18.2 Harvesting
Harvesting guava, a climacteric fruit, is ideal when mature but still firm, ensuring excellent taste and distinctive flavor upon ripening, showcasing the unique characteristics of each cultivar. While seedling guavas may bear fruit after 5–6 years, grafted or air-layered plants exhibit precocity, yielding the first crop at 2 to 3 years of age. Individual hard and firm fruits are picked regularly (Reddy & Kumar, 2019).

The bacterial load in the semen samples is estimated by standard plate count method. The bacterial contaminants of semen have been a major concern for most of the frozen semen production laboratories as it adversely affects semen quality and hence subsequent fertility. There exists a significant negative correlation of bacterial load and sperm livability, motility and in vitro fertility tests. Macrophages and polymorphonuclear granulocytes, which form the first line of defense against these microorganisms, produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) to kill these microorganisms. ROS, however, is also released outside these cells and may react with molecules and cells such as spermatozoa in their vicinity. The cellular antioxidants, present mostly in the cytoplasm, are scanty and inadequate to counteract this ROS as the sperm cell cytoplasm is very small (20 µm3) and mostly distributed in the midpiece. Therefore, semen samples with minimum bacterial load are expect to give better results on insemination.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What are metabolic diseases?

Ans: It is defined as disturbances of the internal homeostasis of the body brought about by an abnormal change in the rate of one or more critical metabolic processes.

2.    How do you prevent milk fever by nutritional management?

Ans: By providing a ration that contains 0.5-0.7% Ca and 0.3-0.4% P and by feeding 20 Million Units of vitamin D/cow/ day starting about 5 days before calving and continue for maximum7 days postpartum.

3.    What is the nutritional management strategy to prevent grass tetany?

Ans: A salt lick of 10 parts each of MgSO₄ and Ca(PO₄)₂ with 80 parts of salt is effective. Besides a mixture of 2 parts of MgO and 1 part salt is also effective measure.

4.    Write down the preventive measures of ketosis?

Horse

The tensor fasciae latae is less extensive.

The superficial gluteus exists separately. It is ‘V’ shaped. It originates from the lateral angle of ilium (tuber coxae) and gluteal fascia and is inserted to the third trochanter. The middle gluteus is the largest of the three gluteal muscles and is very extensive. It originates from the aponeurosis of the longissimus dorsi, extends as far forwards up to first lumbar vertebra and is inserted in three heads, to the trochanter major, the crest ventral to trochanter major and the trochanteric ridge. The deep gluteus is smaller than the middle gluteus and is inserted to the convexity of the trochanter major.

The biceps femoris has an additional insertion to the femur on the rough surface near the trochanter tertius.

The semitendinosus arises from the transverse processes of the first two or three coccygeal vertebrae. The semimembranosus is larger and arises from the sacrosciatic ligament also.

The sartorius does not arise from the shaft of the ilium. The gracilis is not so extensively fused to its fellow at the origin.

The obturator internus has an iliac part- the pisiformis. Its tendon passes through the lesser sciatic foramen and hence does not unite with that of the obturator externus.

Articularis genu is absent

A family of about 611 genera and 13,150 species, Rubiaceae are chiefly distributed in tropics, but some are distributed in temperate or even arctic regions. About 75 genera and 275 species have been reported from India, chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical eastern Himalayas. Some of the largely represented genera with their approximately reported species (Hickey and King, 1988) include Psychotria (700), Galium (400), Ixora (400), Gardenia (250), Mussaenda (200), Asperula (200), Cephaelis (180), Rondeletia (120), Coprosoma (90), Guettarda (80), Rubia (60), Coffea (40) and Cinchona (40). Two most important plants of the family are Coffea arabica (coffee-yielding plant) and species of Cinchona (quinine-yielding plant).
Economic Importance of Selected Genera and Species
Some of the common ornamental plants grown in gardens and roadsides include Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Cephalanthus occidentalis, Galium verum (Ladies Bedstraw), Gardenia jasminoides (Jasmine), Hamelia patens, Hamiltonia suaveolens (Padera), Ixora arborea, I. coccinia, Morinda tinctoria, M. frondosa, M. luteola, Pentas lanceolatea and Rondeletia.

Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino acid content. Pulses are used as food and animal feed. India is the world’s largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses. Many exporting countries are dependent on India for marketing their pulses. Even though India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses still there is a gap of 2-3 million tonnes between the production and consumption of pulses in the country and the gap is met through imports.

To set up of an X–ray (radiology) section following points should be considered while planning:
 
    1.    Anticipated present work load (number of cases and species of animals to be X-rayed) and future requirement in the next 10-15 years.
    2.    Financial resources available.
    3.    Type of equipment to be installed for radiographic work.
    4.    Requirement of radiation safety enforcing agencies e.g. of Bhaba Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai.
The overall set up of radiology section should consider the following requirements:

Materials Required

Fruits or fruit pulp, steel pans, weighing balance, refractometer, sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid, citric acid etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Extract fruit pulp as told in earlier exercises. 
    2.    Take a known quantity of freshly extracted or preserved pulp.
    3.    Weigh sugar (about half the weigh of pulp).
    4.    Heat pulp and sugar over a gas flame.
    5.    Add spices, chillies, salt, citric acid (if required) etc. and cook
    6.    Record the TSS to judge the end point. It should be more than 50o Brix.
    7.    Add measured quantities of acetic acid and sodium benzoate at the end.
    8.    Cool and pack in pre-washed and sterilized glass jars
    9.    Label and store.

18.1 Estrus Detection
18.1.1 Estrus Detection on the Basis of External Signs

The following signs are suggestive estrous period in cattle and buffaloes

1.    Partial inappetance due to excitement

2.    Drop in milk yield

3.    Restless ness of varying degree

4.    Frequent micturition with raised tail and crouching the back and lumbar region

5.    Marked bellowing

6.    Swollen vulvar lips- Due to swelling the wrinkles on vulvar lips disappear. The vulvar lips appear turgid and stand prominently.

7.    Congestion of vulvar lips 

8.    A clear, shiny mucus discharge seen at the vulvar lips extending down to perineal region and smearing the hind quarters. The discharge is stingy, having good consistency and no odour.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is one of the most important deciding factors of seed viability and quality during storage.
2. Indirect method of moisture estimation is_____.
3. Karl fisher titration method is _____ method of moisture estimation
4. For volatile oil containing seeds moisture is estimated by_____.

ABSTRACT

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is a vegetable and spice crop of worldwide importance. Despite the fact that other closely related members of the Solanaceae family are easily transformed by genetic engineering, capsicum still remains recalcitrant to in vitro manipulation, due to lack of proper elongation of multiple shoot initials. An attempt has been made to standardize transformation protocol in two local cultivars of capsicum viz., Byadgi dabbi and Sankeshwar, using shoot tip explants.

The Shoot tip explants were co-cultivated (for 2 days) with Agrobacerium strain EHA105 harboring pBinBt3 plasmid having cry1AC gene and nptII marker linked to the CaMV 35S promoter and nos terminator. After co-cultivation shoot tips were transferred to MS medium containing 2mg/l IBA, 100mg/l kanamycin and 300mg/l cefotaxime. Survived plants were checked for the presence of transgene using cry1 AC and npt II specific primers. Expression of cry1AC gene in these plants was checked using DesiGen Xpresstrips.