eChapters

Marketing of perishable and non perishable products

Agriculture and livestock products like food grains, vegetables, meat, eggs etc. are highly perishable over time. Under ambient conditions they get spoiled with in a few hours, days or months as the case may be. Livestock products particularly milk is perishable within a few hours if not preserved under refrigeration. Same is the case of meat. Eggs also get spoiled within a few days if not preserved under cold storage. Because of these reasons perishable products pose special marketing problems. Unfortunately in a country like India most of the agriculture and livestock products are produced by large number of small producers and the process of marketing is to a large extent is in the unorganised sector. Fortunately in our country a number of states like Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Maharastra, Gujarath and others, milk is marketed through cooperatives. For example in Karnataka, milk is procured by primary milk producers’ cooperative societies, transported, processed and marketed through milk unions located at district level and coordinated at state level by state milk federation that is Karnataka Milk Federation(KMF). Some states also have slightly different marketing organisation for egg marketing also. In the unorganised sector these products go through wholesalers, semi wholesalers, private vendors, retailers and ultimately reach the consumers.

Represented by about 65 genera and 1,730 species, Scrophulariaceae are cosmopolitan in their distribution. About 60 genera and 360 species have been reported from India, chiefly from the Himalayas. Some of the genera along with their approximately reported species from world over are Pedicularis (500), Calceolaria (300-400), Scrophularia (300), Verbascum (300), Veronica (300), Penstemon (280, Linaria (150), Castilleja (150), Selago (150), Sutera (130), Mimulus (100), Antirrhinum (40) and Digitalis (20). The common names of the family (snapdragons, foxglove or figwort family) are because of its genera Antirrhinum (snapdragons), Digitalis (foxglove) and Scrophularia (figwort).
Selected Indian Genera
Antirrhinum, Digitalis, Linaria, Lindenbergia, Mazus, Verbascum, Veronica.
Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants: Include Angelonia angustifolia, Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Calceolaria scabiosaefolia (slipperwort), Castilleja (Indian paintbrush), Chelone glabra (turtlehead), Collinsia grandiflora, Digitalis purpurea (foxglove), Linaria vulgaris (toadflax), Mimulus luteus (monkey flower), Nemesia versicolor (Nemesia), Paulownia tomentosa, Pedicularis canadensis (housewort), Russelia juncea (coral blow), Torenia asiatica and Veronica bungifolia (speedwell).

Dr. Chauhan’s illustrious career as a Veterinary Pathologist is marked by resilience, unwavering compassion, and a commitment to animal welfare. Despite facing numerous challenges, his journey serves as an inspiration to many, not only for his professional achievements but also for his ability to turn obstacles into stepping stones for greater success. Over decades of practice, Dr. Chauhan became a symbol of hope for animals and their caregivers, a testament to what dedication and empathy can accomplish.
Breakthroughs and Milestones
Dr. Chauhan’s career is filled with milestones that showcase his determination to push the boundaries of veterinary medicine. Early in his career, he made headlines by successfully treating a prized racehorse suffering from a rare neurological disorder. The case, which had been deemed incurable by others, required not only medical expertise but also the courage to think outside the box. Dr. Chauhan used a combination of experimental techniques and traditional therapies to restore the horse to full health. This triumph not only saved the horse’s career but also cemented Dr. Chauhan’s reputation as an innovative problem-solver.
Another significant breakthrough came when Dr. Chauhan devised a novel treatment protocol for canine distemper, a disease that ravages stray dog populations. By combining immunotherapy and supportive care, he achieved remarkable survival rates, helping communities across the region manage outbreaks more effectively. One of his most celebrated cases involved Tara, a critically injured elephant rescued from an illegal logging operation. Tara had sustained multiple fractures and severe infections, and her chances of survival were slim. Dr. Chauhan spearheaded an intensive six-month treatment regimen, which included groundbreaking orthopedic surgery and customized physiotherapy. Tara’s recovery became a symbol of hope for wildlife conservationists and sparked a nationwide discussion about the ethics of using animals in hazardous labor.

The process of converting the frozen semen to liquid state while retaining maximum semen quality is called thawing. The process of thawing is as important as freezing as there is equal probability of loss of semen quality in freezing and thawing. Therefore, great care should be taken while thawing to insure that it is done with minimum loss of sperm quality. There are two methods of thawing:

1.    Rapid thawing

2.    Slow thawing

The effectiveness of each method of thawing depends upon the extender composition and freezing procedure. With any thawing procedure, the recommendations of the semen supplier should be followed. The thumb rule is that rapid freezing rates require rapid thawing.

The advancements in the field of informatics, biology and allied fields of technology led to the emergence of an inter-disciplinary field known as ‘Bioinformatics’. This field is an expanding and challenging tool for the collection, storage, organization, integration, analysis and simulation of biological data for utilization in biotechnology.

Collection of Data for Bioinformatics

An epoch making revolution in Genomics in recent years in deciphering plant, animal and microbial genome sequences, Proteomics, Statistics, Instrumental techniques, Structural and Computational Biology have given input to fragmented pieces-and-bits of information on biological materials. Each data is a discrete piece of important but defragmented information regarding a molecule (protein, RNA, DNA, sugars or lipids etc) or a reaction or at best a pathway, supposed to be occurring in a living system independently at a given time and space. However, as in a living system each molecule or a process exists in unison with other entities of its kind, these fragmented data are to be stored, organized, and then integrated and analysed to form an integrated part of a whole chain of events – now called a ‘SYSTEM’. Storage and organisation of data Explosion of knowledge in the field of biology and generation of new informations (data) needs well storage, organization and a faster distribution among the scientific workers. The advent of super computers, high speed computing and development of algorithms for data formatting, assists in the storage of data at the site of origin and distributed through the hyperlinks in world wide web (www).

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ number of seeds are used for germination.
2. The seedlings which show the capacity for continued development into normal plant is called_____.
3. The seedlings which do not show capacity for continued development into normal plant is called_____.
4. Seeds which do not absorb moisture till the end of the test period is called _____.

ABSTRACT

Chilli is the universal spice of Kerala, known for its pungency, flavour and colour of fruits. Of the five domesticated species of Capsicum, C. annuum is the most extensively cultivated one. Bell pepper (C. annuum L.) is mainly used as a vegetable, because of its low pungency and good flavour. It is used as raw in salads, and also in cooked form. Application of biotechnological tools in this crop for improving the quality, shelf life and tolerance of the crop to stress conditions has been limited. This is mainly due to lack of an efficient regeneration system. We reported a viable protocol for the regeneration of whole plant from the hypocotyl earlier. We also succeeded in developing a protocol for genetic transformation of bell pepper using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The strain EHA 105 containing gus intron and npt II was used for co-cultivation. The dilution of bacterial culture and time of infection were standardised. This was followed by killing the bacterial cells using cefotaxim @ 250ppm. Transformants were selected on MS medium supplemented with kanamycin. Staining of the regenerants with X-gluc revealed presence of blue spots, confirming transformation. This protocol could be exploited for improving the commercial traits of bell pepper by incorporating desirable genes through Agrobacterium mediated transformation.

The venous drainage of hind limb begins from two digital venous plexuses, one for each digit, situated in the corium of the foot. From each of these plexuses extend three digital veins namely the dorsal common digital vein, the medial digital vein and the lateral digital vein. The digital veins in their upward course converge and form the metatarsal veins which in their turn continue upward in the leg region as tibial and popliteal veins and then in the thigh region as femoral vein which finally joins the external iliac vein as the chief vein of the hind limb.

Digital veins

The dorsal common digital vein arises from the corresponding digital plexus in the form of proper digital vein.The two proper digital veins ascend along the medial face of the corresponding digit and unite at about the middle of the interdigital space below the metatarso-phalangeal articulation (fetlock joint) and form the dorsal common digital vein. The later, thus formed, ascends through the interdigital space, crosses vertically the metatarso-phalangeal articulation and after reaching the distal extremity of the metatarsal bone continues upward as dorsal metatarsal vein.

The medial digital vein after arising from the digital venous plexus ascends along the caudomedial aspect of the medial digit in company with the satellite artery, shares a branch each from the dorsal common digital and lateral digital veins, ascends the medial face of the fetlock joint and is then continued up as the medial plantar metatarsal vein.

The lateral digital vein after arising from the digital venous plexus of the lateral digit passes upward in the interdigital space, communicates a branch to the dorsal common digital and medial digital veins and then ascends the lateral face of the fetlock joint and then is continued up as the lateral plantar metatarsal vein.

Mineral

A mineral is defined as “a natural substance, usually inorganic, having a definite chemical composition and commonly a definite molecular arrangement which is usually expressed in geometric form”.

Various aspects of micorbial plant pathogens have been studied with the ultimate aim of gathering information that may be useful for development of effective disease management systems. Principles of management of crop diseases caused by microbial pathogens fall into three categories : exclusion, eradication and immunization.

7.1 Exclusion of Microbial Plant Pathogens

Exclusion of microbial pathogens may be expected to reduce the amount or efficacy of the initial population of pathogens that may be introduced into a geographical location / field. Exclusion is an important component of management of diseases, if the initial population of pathogen is large. This approach is particularly effective in the case of monocyclic pathogens that complete their life cycle only once during one cropping season. The methods with the aim of excluding the introduction of pathogens or to prevent the build up of inoculum required for disease spread are generally applied elsewhere. Hence, they have lower level of visibility compared to other approaches. Introduction of new pathogens present in plant and plant materials into another country or locations within a country may be effectively prevented by establishing plant quarantines. Build up of inoculum of microbial pathogens can be reduced considerably by the use of disease-free plants or planting materials supplied through certification agencies. These regulatory programmes have to be manned by trained technical personnel and supported by adequate infrastructure in terms of equipments and mobility (Chapter 8).

This individualizing examination of a case of disease, for which Dr. Hahnemann give general directions, of which the practitioner will bear in mind only what is applicable for each individual case, demands of the physician nothing but freedom from prejudice and sound senses, attention in observing and fidelity in tracing the picture of the disease.

The patient details the history of his sufferings; those about him tell what they heard him complain of, how he has behaved and what they have noticed in him; the physician sees, hears, and remarks by his other senses what there is of an altered or unusual character about him. He writes down accurately all that the patient and his friends have told him in the very expressions used by them. Keeping silence himself, he allows them to say all they have to say, and refrains from interrupting them (every interruption breaks the train of thought of the narrators, and all they would have said at first does not again occur to them in precisely the same manner after that.) unless they wander off to other matters. The physician advises them at the beginning of the examination to speak slowly, in order that he may take down in writing the important parts of what the speaker says.

He begins a fresh line with every new circumstance mentioned by the patient or his friends, so that the symptoms shall be all ranged separately one below the other. He can thus add to any one that may at first have been related in too vague a manner but subsequently more explicitly explained.

1. At times of distress sales

a) Marketed surplus < Marketable surplus

b) Marketed surplus > Marketable surplus

c) Marketed surplus = Marketable surplus

d) Zero marketed surplus

2. For durable goods, under normal pricing conditions

a) Marketed surplus < Marketable surplus

b) Marketed surplus > Marketable surplus

c) Marketed surplus = Marketable surplus

d) Zero marketed surplus

India produces around 33 mt. of fruits and 50 mt. of vegetables annually (Chadha and Bhargava, 1997). It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of total produce is available as organic waste for recycling in agriculture (Nand et al., 1996). In addition to processing of fruits and vegetables results in production of around 5 mt. of solid wastes (Table 66). Most of these wastes contain organic and plant nutrients (Table 66). There are still large amounts of wastes that are not being completely utilized. In most cases, these wastes are pro-duced from isolated sources and not by large centralized.companies. In practically all cases, horticultural and vegetable products are processed in relatively small canning plants and distributed for use generally in the same geographical area where the produce is grown, this is true world over since fruit and veg-etable wastes cannot be usually transported long distances in view of their bulk, high moisture and low to moderate feeding value relative to conventional feed.

Materials Required

Fruits or vegetables, stainless steel knife, steel pans, Can Body Reformer, Flanger, Double seamer, weighing balance, Refractometer / Salometer, sugar or salt etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Wash the selected fruit or vegetable (as the case may be) 
    2.    Cut into pieces or slices (the size and shape may depend on the fruit/ vegetable but it should not be too large or too small)
    3.    Blanch the material in boiling water for 1-2 min for effective inactivation of enzymes. 
    4.    Prepare the sugar syrup of strength 40o Brix or brine of 1-3 % strength.
    5.    Prepare the can body using a can body reformer and flange the ends in a flanger.
    6.    Seal the base plate using first and second roller operations of the double seamer. 
    7.    Transfer the prepared fruits / vegetables into the cans. 
    8.    Pour in hot syrup or brine into the cans.
    9.    Place the lid over the top of filled can. (follow the first roller operation of the double seamer, if the cans are OTS cans)
    10.    Exhaust the cans in boiling water for about 10 min. to exclude any dissolved air out of the tissues or syrup/brine.
    11.    When the temperature of the centre of can reaches 79-80 ºC for fruits or 82ºC for vegetables, remove the cans from the exhaust box and seal them properly (follow the second roller operation of the double seamer, if the cans are OTS can).
    12.    Process the sealed cans at 100ºC and 115-121ºC for fruits and vegetables respectively for 15-30 min in case of fruits and 25-45 min. in case of vegetables.
    13.    Cool the cans immediately in cold water and air dry them at room temperature.
    14.    Label and store in a cool dry place.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why Oats are mostly preferred by horse?

Ans: Because oats are low in energy, rich in fibre (8-11%), very soft and easily ruptured duringmastication, highly palatable, rich in oil content (5%), better protein quality (high lysine), more readily digested in the S.I. than maize and barley and moreover it provides a more open textured material in the stomach due to high fibre and are thus least likely to cause colic compared to other cereals.

2.    Why wheat is most likely cereal to cause colic in horse?

Ans: Because of its high gluten content since gluten leads to the formation of doughy lump in the stomach. Hence wheat should not be used exceptin small quantities or in low levels.

3.    Why Excessive feeding of wheat bran leads to ‘Big head disease’ or ‘Millers disease’ in horse?

Ans: It is due to an imbalance ratio of Ca and P in this bran i.e high in P and low in Ca. So, due to a Ca deficiency, Ca is withdrawn from the bone and the bone is replaced by a proliferationof fibrous connective tissue whichismainlyfound in the skull or jaw.

I. FILL UPS

1. The quick viability test was developed by _____.
2. _____ is a biochemical test.
3. The indicator used for quick viability test is _____.
4. For maize seeds, the method followed for staining is _____.

ABSTRACT

Holostemma ada-kodien K. Schum, is a laticiferous climber belonging to the family Asclepiadaceae. The root tubers of the plant are medicinally important and are utilized as a major ingredient of the drug, Jivanti. The roots of Holostemma are sweet, ophthalmic, emmolient, alterant, tonic stimulant, aphrodisiac, expectorant and galactagogue and are useful in ophthalmopathy, orchitis, cough, burning sensation, stomachalgia, fever and to cure ‘tridosha’ (Warrier et al., 1995). The sugars and amino acids present in the tuberous roots are responsible for the medicinal properties (Ramiah et al., 1981). There is a huge demand for the root tubers of Holostemma in the South Indian pharmacies and more than 150 metric tons of roots are needed every year (Nair et al., 1992). The destructive and ruthless collection of tuberous roots in recent times has led to acute scarcity of the plant and consequently it has been listed as vulnerable and rare in the FRLHT red list of medicinal plants (FRLHT, 1997). Extending the commercial cultivation of Holostemma is practically impossible due to the increasing land pressure and the perennial nature of the crop. An alternative to meet the increasing demand is to produce the active chemicals in Holostemma through in vitro techniques. In vitro techniques have been extensively studied to produce the different secondary metabolites from various medicinal plants. A strong correlation between secondary metabolite production and morphological differentiation gives more impetus to the application of organized cell culture particularly the root cultures for the large-scale production of phytochemicals in vitro. Transformed root cultures - the so called hairy root cultures obtained after the insertion of T-DNA from the root inducing (Ri) plasmid of the Agrobacterium rhizogenes into the plant genome (Ackermann, 1977) has emerged as an important tool for the production of secondary metabolites in vitro (Rhodes et al., 1987). Hairy roots have advantages of fast growth, organ differentiation and stable secondary metabolite production (Banerjee et al., 1995). We report here the hairy root induction from shoot buds and seedling hypocotyls in infection with A. rhizogenes useful in exploring the possibilities of large-scale in vitro secondary metabolite production in this rare medicinal plant.

The avocado (Persea americana Mill) belonging to the family Lauraceae, may have originated in southern Mexico but was cultivated from the Rio Grande to central Peru long before the arrival of Europeans. It was then distributed into the West Indies and all other parts of the tropical and subtropical world. It reached India probably in 1892. Now it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala in India, to a limited extent.

Cultivars/Varieties: Fuerte, Hass, Lula, Pollck, Purple, Green.

Uses

Avocado is low in sugar content and rich in avocado butter, hence can be highly recommended as a high energy food for diabetics. The pulp of the fruit can be preserved by freezing, and can be used as sandwich filling or spread, in ice creams and milk shakes. Though the fruit is high in fat content, it is harmless unlike animal fat. The pulp has butter consistency, and looks very much like cow’s butter and bland in taste with a nutty flavour, without any offensive odour or smell. Its aroma resembles that of tender coconut.

Principle
The principle of the test is that antibodies possess two antigen-binding sites that will attach specifically with the antigenic determinants on the surfaces of the bacteria, cells or particles. Under suitable conditions one antibody molecule will combine with the determinant group on the surfaces of two bacteria and in this way a lattice is formed. These lattices are generally visible with the naked eye as clumps and they sediment readily due to the large size of the clump.
Pre-requisites for Agglutination Reaction
a) The antigen (agglutinogen) should be in particulate form, which will remain in suspension for sufficiently long time.
b) The antibody (agglutinin) should be directed to the target surface epitope.
c) Antigen – antibody should be present in optimal proportions.
d) An electrolyte is necessary for the reaction to take place and usually the reaction is carried out in physiological saline solutions (0.85% NaCl). Because of the overall negative charge on red cells or bacteria at neutral pH it is difficult for them to come close enough, so that for molecule such as IgG antibodies are able to form a bridge between epitope of two different cells or bacteria. The presence of salt tends to neutralize the charge effects to allow agglutination.
Plate Agglutination Test
This is employed to screen sera within a short period for preliminary testing.
Materials
• Brucella abortus coloured antigen
• suspected serum
• glass plate.

A diagnostic radiograph is defined as one showing the tissues adequately penetrated, sharply outlined, and the variations in tissue opacity sufficiently demonstrated. An ideal diagnostic radiograph should have excellent detail, correct density and proper scale of contrast. The sharpness of the image determines the detail or definition of an image. There are two factors in radiographic quality control, viz: photographic and the geometric effect.  Density, contrast and detail are photographic aspects of radiographic quality. Detail and distortion are geometric aspects of radiographic quality. Because a radiograph is a two-dimensional (2-D) image of a three-dimensional (3-D) object, the appearance of a radiographic image varies with the patient’s orientation in relation to the primary X-ray beam.