eChapters

7.1 Introduction
Certain bacteria are present in milk that is extracted from the udder; they increase in quantity as it is processed further. The optimal temperature range for the proliferation of typical milk bacteria is 20 to 40 degrees Celsius. The formation of unpleasant flavours, increased acidity, and other factors always results in a decline in market quality following the proliferation of bacteria. Prompt chilling to a low temperature is one method of preserving milk. Milk jug Refrigerator: In order to preserve the purity of the milk received at the Dairy/Chilling Centre, it is chilled to 4°C using a milk chiller. Stainless-steel plates comprise the chiller. The process of chilling involves the circulation of chilled water from one side of the plates and milk from the other.
7.2 Methods
1. In can or can immersion method:
The milk is not only cooled, but it also remains cold, necessitating a significantly smaller mechanical refrigeration unit. This is achieved by transporting pails.
Benefits of a surface cooler
• Efficiently and swiftly transfer heat.
• Relatively affordable.
• Additionally, the milk is aerated, which enhances its flavour.

Chrysomelid beetle : Aulacophora foveicollis : Chrysomelidae

Adults cut tender shoots and feed on leaves resulting in holes and loss of leaf. Grubs feed on roots and underground stems leading to yellowing,wilting and drying of attacked plants.

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) belonging to family Asteracea is a native of China. It is a half hardy annual, erect plant, hispid hairy branches bearing alternate, broadly ovate or triangular ovate, deeply and irregularly toothed leaves. Flowers are solitary, usually blue, lavender rose or white coloured. China aster is one of the most important among garden annuals grown throughout the world. Among annual flowers China aster ranks third next to chrysanthemum and marigold. It is grown by small and marginal farmers in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra. Due to its long vase life, China aster is a popular cut flower used in vases and for floral decoration and also for making garlands and venis in Karnataka. Asters are popular as bedding plants and used to fill gap in mixed herbaceous borders. Dwarf cultivars are also suitable for edging and window boxes.

China aster (Callistephus chinensis L. Nees) belongs to family Asteraceae. It is a half hardy and branching annual. Its generic name Callistephus is derived from two Greek words “kalistos” meaning beautiful and “stephos” meaning a crown alluding the large colourful flower heads. Plant is erect having hispid-hairy branches (Bailey, 1963). It is propagated through seed. It is cultivated as cut flower both in the field and under protected condition in temperate countries (Post, 1956 and Warren Auman, 1980). Whereas, in India it is widely grown in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharastra for cut as well as loose flower production (Janakiram et al., 2001).

China aster (Callistephus chinensis L. Nees) belongs to family Asteraceae. It is a half hardy and branching annual. Its generic name Callistephus is derived from two Greek words “kalistos” meaning beautiful and “stephos” meaning a crown alluding the large colourful flower heads. Plant is erect having hispid-hairy branches (Bailey, 1963). It is propagated through seed. It is cultivated as cut flower both in the field and under protected condition in temperate countries (Post, 1956 and Warren Auman, 1980). Whereas, in India it is widely grown in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharastra for cut as well as loose flower production (Janakiram et al., 2001).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

China aster is originated from China. Several literatures also stated that China aster is native to China and Japan (Anon., 1950, Bailey, 1963 and Cockshull, 1985). The evolution of China aster has remarkable variations. The present day aster has been developed from single form of wild species, C. chinensis, a plant native to China. The plant was introduced in Europe in 1731 by Jesuit Missionary R.P. d Incarville.

The original plant had single flowers with two or four rows of blue, violet or white ray florets. The first change in the flower type had been the prolongation or development of central florets which lead to quilled flowers. Much original work to improve the plant was done by French. Later the British followed suit with breeding programmes. Most of the recent improvements are the work of American breeders. French florists contributed much in development of double forms. German scientists also evolved many doubled cultivars. These asters were known as German asters because the first great advances in the evolution of the plant were made in Germany and the seeds then used came largely from that country. The comet types introduced in 1886 or 1887 subsequently replaced the quilled types. With the introduction of new branching types by James Vick in 1893, the USA became the main centre of development of this plant as well as for the production of seeds. Since its introduction into Europe, it is grown in almost all the countries of the globe as a garden annual. A good amount of work on China aster on improvement and growing practices has been done in India (Singh, 2006).

INTRODUCTION

China aster is one of the most popular annual flowering plant grown throughout the world. Among annuals it ranks next to chrysanthemum and marigold and is grown mainly by marginal and small farmers. It can easily be grown in the open fields and lath houses for the roduction of cut flowers Cut asters last long and are used in vases and floral decoration. When asters are grown in large mass, they make very showy bedding plants and are valuable for filling up the gap in mixed herbaceous border. The dwarf types are put in front and the taller behind.

Some strains are used as pot plants, while dwarf cultivars are suitable for edging and window boxes. The prominent colours of flowers are blue, violet, lavender, rose, white, etc. In tropical and subtropical countries aster is extensively grown for bedding and cut blooms during winter month and spring. China aster is one of the most important traditional flowers in India and has maximum use for traditional purposes. The commercial importance of China aster is increasing in India especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra.

Abstract: The most popular ornamental monotypic species chinensis, is an important annual flower, used commercially as cut flower for interior decoration, bedding, potting and landscape purpose. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars from this species on the market. The influence of breeding methods on the selection criterion and selection procedures is discussed. Information on variability and correlation is included. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include plant architecture, flowering (colour, size, timings), attractive flower heads, extended bloom time, horizontal placement of flowers, floral longevity, earliness, healthy foliage or other morphological traits. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this crop for large scale cultivation.

Introduction

China aster is one of the most popular annual flowering plant grown throughout the world. Among annuals it ranks next to chrysanthemum and marigold. It can easily be grown in the open fields for cut and loose flowers. Cut asters last long and are used in vases and floral decoration. When asters are grown in large mass, they make very showy bedding plants and are valuable for filling up the gap in mixed herbaceous border. The dwarf types are put in front and the taller behind.

Some varieties are used as pot plants. The prominent colours of flowers are blue, violet, lavender, rose, white, etc. The commercial importance of China aster is increasing in India especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra.

Genetics

China aster (Callistephus chinensis L. Nees) belongs to family Asteraceae. The genus Callistephus has only a single species i.e. C. chinensis. The ploidy level is diploid (2n = 18).

China aster is a popular annual cut flower valued for its vibrant colours, sturdy stems, attractive flower forms and good vase life. This chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercial importance in India. It covers improved varieties, climate, soil, propagation, seed treatment, nursery management, planting, nutrition, irrigation and other cultural practices. The chapter further explains pest and disease management, harvesting, postharvest handling, grading, marketing and yield. China aster's importance to small and marginal farmers and its demand as both cut and loose flower make it an attractive crop for diversified commercial floriculture.

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) is a half-hardy annual belonging to the family Asteraceae and is valued for its attractive flowers in various colours and forms. It is an important ornamental and loose flower crop, particularly suitable for garlands and floral decoration. The chapter introduces its origin, genetics, botanical characteristics and important cultivars developed by Indian research institutions. It discusses climate and soil requirements, propagation, nursery management, field preparation, planting and nutrient management. Irrigation and other cultural practices are presented along with major insect pests and diseases such as grey mould and rust. Harvesting, postharvest handling and yield considerations complete the production package

The earliest Brassica planted in North America was Chinese cabbage, also known as celery cabbage and napa. It is becoming increasingly popular in western kitchens. When eaten fresh, the huge savoyed leaves with thick succulent midribs have a sweet flavour and crisp texture. The Pekinensis Group and the Chinensis Group are two cultivar groups of leaf vegetables frequently used in Chinese cuisine. These vegetables are turnip cultivars or subspecies that belong to the same genus as cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower, among other Western mainstays.

Botany & taxonomy: Brassica rapa, one of two commonly cultivated mustard family (Brassicaceae) members that are variants of Chinese cabbage. Pak Choy is a type of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. chinensis). Celery cabbage is another name for Napa cabbage.

Leaf-and shoot folders: Hymenia recurvalis : Pyraustidae

Pycnarmon cribrata;Phostria piasusalis

Chironji or Charoli (Buchanania lanzan Spreng.) is an important fruit tree of agro forestry and social forestry. In the wasteland development and dryland horticulture, it assumes great significance due to its multifarious uses and capacity to withstand adverse environmental conditions. At present, it is growing under natural forest as an underexploited fruit and gives monitory reward to the tribal community of the country and seems to be boon for them. It is valuable tree species found in dry deciduous forest throughout the country excluding eastern Himalayan forests (Singh, 1982).

Chironji or Charoli (Buchanania lanzan Spreng Family: Anacardiaceae) is an excellent tree of agro forestry and social forestry. In wasteland development and Dryland horticulture, it assumes great significance due to multifarious uses and capacity to withstand adverse climatic conditions. At present, it is growing under forest condition as an under exploited fruit and gives monitory reward to tribal community of country and seems to be a boon for them. It is a valuable species found in dry deciduous forest throughout the country excluding eastern Himalayan forests (Singh, 1982). Flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and is largely eaten raw or roasted and oily kernels are the most important part and are used in preparation of sweet meats and puddings (Singh, 1982). Mesocarp of fruit is edible and cherished by children (Munde et al, 2003). Kernel is highly nutritious and rich in protein (18.00 %) and yields sweet oil, which can be used to substitute olive and almond oil. Kernel contains 33.50 % oil, 1.90 % of which is unsaponifiable. Saponifiable part contained 20.00 % of linoleic acid. Chironji oil is non-repellant and non-toxic and is suitable for human consumption (Banerjee and Jain, 1988). Hemawathy and Prabhakar (1988) reported that total kernel lipid extracted from chironji was 65.60 % of dry kernel and consisted of 90.40 % neutral lipids, 3.4 % glycolipids and 6.2 % phospholipids. Kernel can be used for preparation of sweets. It provides quality timber wood for various uses.

Abstract

Chitin has been ranked at second position after cellulose as the most abundant natural biopolymer. Chitin has similar chemical structure to that of cellulose with 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-b-d-glucose (NAG) monomers attached via ß (1–>4) linkages. Chitosan is the deacetylated (to varying degrees) form of chitin, which, unlike chitin, is soluble in acidic solutions. Therefore, Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine, is amongst the most copious biopolymers on earth and finds wide range of biomedical and industrial applications. It has been approved in 1983 by USDA as a feed additive. Chitin basically is obtained from prawn/crab shells and chemical treatment of chitin produces chitosan. Since supplies of seafood waste are seasonable and variable, so fungi can be used as alternative source for chitosan. The unique physicochemical properties of chitosan provide great potential of its utilization in food industry especially dairy industry such as production of dairy products, dairy waste water treatment, extension of shelf life of dairy products etc. In recent years, exotic synthetic compounds are losing their appeal, thus application of chitinous products in dairy as well as processing aids has received considerable attention. The modified chitosan with greater functional properties has increased application in different dairy foods. This chapter focuses on the fundamental uses of chitosan and their derivatives in a variety of dairy industry applications.

Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria with an unusual developmental cycle during which unique infectious forms are produced. They replicate within cytoplasmic vacuoles in host cells. On account of their apparent inability to generate ATP, with resultant dependence on host cell metabolism, they have been termed ‘energy parasites’.
The family Chlamydiaceae belongs to the order Chlamydiales. Currently two genera, Chlamydia and Chlamydophila, and nine species are described. Formerly a single genus and four species, Chlamydia trachomatis, C. psittaci, C. pneumoniae and C. pecorum, were recognised. This classification was based on phenotypic characteristics such as host preference, inclusion morphology, iodine staining for the presence of glycogen, and sulphonamide susceptibility. However, recent nucleic acid sequencing studies of the 16s and 23s rRNA genes confirm two distinct lineages.
In the developmental cycle of chlamydiae, infectious and reproductive forms are morphologically distinct. Infectious extracellular forms, called elementary bodies (EBs) are small (200 to 300 nm), metabolically inert and osmotically stable. Each EB is surrounded by a conventional bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, a periplasmic space and an outer envelope containing lipopolysaccharide.
The periplasmic space does not contain a detectable peptidoglycan layer and the EB relies on disulphide cross-linked envelope proteins for osmotic stability. Elementary bodies enter host cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Acidification of the endosome and fusion with lysosomes are prevented by mechanisms which are not fully understood. A process of structural reorganization within the pathogen, of several hours duration, results in the conversion of an EB into a reticulate body (RB). The RB, about 1 μm in diameter, is metabolically active, osmotically fragile and replicates by binary fission within the endosome. The endosome and its contents, when stained, is called an inclusion. When a number of inclusions containing RBs of C.trachomatis are formed in an infected cell, fusion of these structures may
occur.

The word ‘chlamydia’ comes from the Greek word ‘chlamys’ which means, “cloak draped around the shoulder”. This describes how the intracytoplasmic inclusions caused by the bacterium are “draped” around the infected cell’s nucleus. Chlamydia was first discovered by a Czech zoologist and parasitologist, Stanislaus von Prowazek in 1907 in Berlin, but scientists believe it was actively infecting people for centuries before its discovery. Because the symptoms of Chlamydia are similar to some other infections it was not identified as a sexually transmitted disease. Originally, because of its structure it was thought to be a virus. In 1963 it was recognized as bacteria rather than a virus.

Properties of genus

           They are poorly stained by Gram’s stain. Chlamydiae are readily stained by Castaneda (blue in appearance), Giemnez and Macchiavello (red in appearance) methods. However, Giemsa staining is preferable to stain the inclusions (Chlamydial micro colony) in the cell culture. Inclusion bodies of the Chlamydiae are basophilic in nature. Again, the staining of the inclusion bodies may differ depending on the species. In C. trachomatis, the inclusion bodies contain glycogen matrix and can be easily stained with iodine solution.

Chlamydial organisms are spherical 0.2-1.5 um in diameter. They can be stained and seen in the light microscope, but they grow only in living cells. Chlamydial organisms infect mammals and birds causing various disease syndromes. Chlamydiacae family has one genus; Chlamydia. C. trachomatis, C. suis and C. muridarum. They cause disease in man, swine and mice. C. psittaci, C. pneumonia, C. felis, C. Caviae, and C. abortus. cause disease in man, birds and animals. Species can be differentiated on their growth characters inside the host cell.

Principle
Chloride ion is determined by Mohr’s method, titration with standard silver nitrate solution in which silver chloride is precipitated first. The end of titration is indicated by formation of red silver chromate from excess AgNO3 and potassium chromate used as an indicator in neutral to slightly alkaline solution.
AgNO3 +Cl- ? AgCl+NO3
2AgNO3+ K2CrO4 ? Ag2CrO4+2KNO3 (Reddish Brown)
Reagents
1. Standard Silver nitrate 0.0141N : Take 1.189 g and dissolved it in 500 ml distilled water.
2. Sodium chloride 0.014N: Dissolve 0.28 g sodium chloride in 500 ml of distilled water.
3. Potassium Chromate indicator
Procedure
1. Take 50 ml sample in a 100 ml conical flask
2. Adjust its pH in between 7.0 and 8.0 either with alkali or acid solution. Otherwise, AgOH is formed at high pH level or CrO4 -2 at low pH level.
3. Add 1 ml of potassium chromate (K2CrO4) colour turn to light yellow.
4. Titrate with standard silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution till colour change from light yellow to brick red colour.
5. Note the volume of AgNO3 added (A)
6. For better accuracy, titrate distilled water in the same manner
7. Note the volume of silver nitrate added for distilled water (B)

Mutation in M₂

The output of mutations in M₂ and subsequent generations solely depends upon the complex interaction between many factors in the treated organism together with the specific modes of action of particular mutagen. These results are expressed quantitatively by the mutation rate and qualitatively by the mutation spectrum. The proportion of mutated plants to normal ones which is the mutation rate can be computed on the number of mutations per 100 M₁ plants (Gustafsson, 1940), number of mutations per 100 M₁ spikes (Stadler, 1928), and number of mutants per 100 M₂ plants (Gaul, 1960). After comparing the three indices, Gaul (1960) has concluded that mutants per 100 M₂ plants provided the best index, as it is proportional to the initial mutation rate and is independent of variations in progeny size and size of mutated sector. In Pisum, Blixt (1966) has confirmed this. Mohan Rao (1972) has reported that in barley, the M₂ seedling method determined the total induced mutation frequency. This method is also superior since it accounted for the components of induced mutation frequency viz., the frequency of mutated initials in each spike primordium and the frequency of spike primordia mutated.

The qualitative output of mutation in M₂ and later generations is expressed as the mutation spectrum which reflects the different frequencies of different mutations. Westergard (1960) found that the alkylating chemicals induced a higher proportion of less drastic mutations such as Viridis compared to extreme mutations such as Albina than those induced by radiations because of their apparent slight effect on chromosomes. Sidorova (1966) found a positive correlation between the spectrum of chlorophyll and the spectrum of morphological mutations.

Abstract

Genus Chlorophytum is represented by approximately 300 species of rhizomatous plants, distributed predominantly in tropical and sub tropical forests of the world. Most of these are medicinally important. Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R. Fern among these is highly valued because of high saponin content mainly concentrated in its tuberous roots. These steroidal saponins are important bioactive components responsible for aphrodisiac attributes of this species in addition to several other benefits. Present communication reviews the data available on medicinal properties and phytochemical constitution of the species.

Introduction

Increasing production of cereal crops, oil seed crops, and horticultural crops is becoming more important than ever before owing to increasing population and changing food habits of the people. The modern tools of biotechnology are being exploited to the fullest throughout the world for developing transgenic crop plants with improved traits. Already about 20 countries in the world are growing transgenic crops, predominately with traits such herbicide tolerance and resistance to insect-pests. However, there is a constant fear of pollen flow from theses transgenics to the neighbouring non-transgenic fields or to their weedy or wild relatives. It has become a matter of great concern to all biotechnologists to develop alternative strategies to prevent the pollen flow.

The best alternative strategy available today to circumvent the nuclear- transformation associated bottlenecks in developing tenable crop transgenics is the chloroplast transformation technology. This technology allows introduction and insertion of foreign genes into the chloroplast genome, called plastome. Chloroplasts are the site for photosynthesis in plants mostly present in leaves. In general called plastids, they are also present in other parts of the plant. For example, chromoplasts in coloured leaves and fruits, amyloplasts in starch storing organs, leucoplats in roots, and etioplasts in dark-grown seedlings. The plastids arise from proplastids - the undifferentiated form of plastids present in most plant cells. Just like nucleus, these plastids (and also mitochondria) contain their own genetic material on the chloroplast genome.

Chocolate is almost unique as a food in that it is solid at normal room temperatures yet melts easily within the mouth. This is because the main fat in it, which is called cocoa butter, is essentially solid at temperatures below 25^oC when it holds all the solid sugar and cocoa particles together. This fat is, however, almost entirely liquid at body temperature, enabling the particles to flow past one another, so the chocolate becomes a smooth liquid when it is heated in the mouth. Chocolate also has a sweet taste that is attractive to most people.

The first known cocoa plantations were established by the Maya in the lowlands of south Yucatan about 600 AD. Cocoa trees were being grown by the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru when the Europeans discovered central America. The beans were highly prized and used as money as well as to produce a drink known as chocolatl. The beans were roasted in earthenware pots and crushed between stones, sometimes using decorated heated tables and mill stones, similar to those illustrated in Figure 1.1.

The development of a recipe for chocolate should be based on three criteria:

(i) The intended market or use;

(ii) The limitation being placed on material and production costs;

(iii) The desired quality.

The amount of fat present in the chocolate will affect the flow properties, and fat content must therefore be varied according to the intended use.

Some point to remember while manufacturing chocolate:

1. To maintain proper viscosity if fat content is increased then sugar content should also be increased.
2. Milk chocolate requires lower fat content than dark chocolate.
3. Addition of emulsifier like commercial lecithin can save upto 5% of added cocoa butter.

Key Points

• Dogs can be fed a wide variety of chocolate and cocoa-based goods, particularly during holiday seasons, such as candy, cakes, cookies, brownies, and chocolate chips.

• Dogs that eat chocolate usually become very sick, but they also seldom die from it.

Introduction

Caffeine and theobromine are found in chocolate. Dogs' metabolisms of caffeine and theobromine differ from humans'. Because they contain more theobromine and caffeine, darker, bitter chocolates are considered to be more dangerous.

When a dog consumes too much chocolate goods, it can lead to major health problems like seizures, heart failure, and muscular tremors. In extreme situations, the dog may even pass away from cardiac or respiratory failure. Due to the fat and sugar content, it induces vomiting and diarrhoea even in non-toxic doses. Numerous substances found in chocolate are hazardous to animals. Although chocolate poisoning can affect a wide variety of animal species, including dogs, cats, horses, and rodents, it most frequently affects dogs. Theobromine and caffeine are the main harmful ingredients in chocolate. The amount of caffeine and theobromine in chocolate varies with kind. Dogs' metabolism of theobromine and caffeine differs from that of humans. Dogs are more sensitive because of this. Dogs who consume chocolate may become seriously unwell, even though it rarely results in death. When a dog eats too many chocolate-containing foods, such as cakes, cookies, brownies, candies, and chocolate chips, it might become poisoned.

Many crops can be grown in greenhouse but the choice depends on number of factors.

1.Requirement of the farmer, what for she/he wants to grow the crop.

2.For personal use number of vegetable crops and herbs and fruits like strawberry and papaya can be grown.

3.In case of commercial crops, the market must be ascertained before the choice of the crop.

4.Greenhouse must be equipped to create micro-climate for the crop of choice.

5.The choice of crop is a crucial factor for the economic feasibility and success of a commercial greenhouse operation. The revenue of cultivated crop makes the venture to progress.

6.Crop varieties, suitable for greenhouse cultivation should differentiate themselves from open-field varieties to fetch better price on quality.

Hybridization is a potent technique to create variability for selection and breaking yield barriers, evolve varieties having built in high potential. The selection of suitable parents for hybridization is one of the most important step in hybridization program. Selection of parents on the basis of phenotypic performance alone is not a sound procedure since phenotypically superior lines may yield poor recombinations in the segregating generations. It is therefore essential that parents are chosen on the basis of their genetic value. Some of the commonly utilized techniques for assessing the genetic value of a genotype are:

Introduction

The emerging functional foods market presents a considerable challenge to all manufacturers to keep abreast of the use of adequate packaging materials for their products. The interest in functional foods is intrinsically linked to the potential health benefits of their bioactive components. Preserving these bioactive components is, therefore, a crucial factor to providing the anticipated health benefits of functional foods. However, recurring failure in maintaining the quality of functional foods has been reported. Functional foods include a wide variety of products such as prebiotics and probiotics, dried foods (fibers, tea, herbs, etc.), fermented products (yogurts, kefirs, vegetables), and fresh fruits and vegetables. Their bioactive components (minerals, vitamins, fibers, peptides, proteins, w–3 polyunsaturated fats, antioxidants, enzymes, and symbiotics) range from very simple molecules to complex living organisms such as bacteria.

Chow-Chow [Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz] is used in many parts of Latin America, humid tropical regions of Central America and Southern Mexico. It is cultivated in South East Asia (India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Phillipines), Central and Western Africa, Central and South America (Brazil) and other tropical regions. (Dutta 1994). In India, local cultivars are commonly grown in coastal and low-hills (1000-2000m) of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamilnadu. In Tamil, it is called “Seeme Kattrikkai” (Bailey, 1947). It is an important part of dietary system of tribals of  North East Regions. It is found in kitchen gardens of every tribal. It is found in almost all states and regions but maximum variability is found in Sikkim, Mizoram and Meghalaya (Yadav et al., 2005). Its variable fruits and roots, are important elements in diet of people. Chow-Chow is widespread and is an important export crop for  Latin American countries, much still need to be learned  about this crop (Rafael Lira Saade,1996). Chow-Chow is a single seeded fruit of  Cucurbitaceous family (MacGillivray, 1953). It is a perennial rooted vine that bears edible fruits (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). In subtropical and tropical regions, it produces large edible tuberous roots. It thrives under moderate temperature in  tropical or semi-tropical environment, though it can also be successfully grown under high temperature near sea level. Chow-Chow is a herbaceous perennial creeper (Choudhury, 1967) and is a robust grower in warmer months of year and during  cold weather of July and August  plant dies back temporarily. It has a viviparous type of germination (Patnaik, 1967). S.edule is called chayote, probably from  Greek ‘Sekos’ to  fatten in a fold because it was fed to hogs ( Bailey, 1963).

Nutrition plays a pivotal role for the animal research, be it health or production. Research in animal nutrition employs many basic techniques and chromatography is one of them. Chromatographic processes can be defined as separation techniques involving mass transfer between stationary and mobile phases. Various types of chromatography have one application or the other in analysis of food/feed components (Day and Williamson, 2001), quantitation of nutrients as well as the characterization of the effect of nutrients in biological samples like serum/plasma or tissues (Merken and Beecher, 2000).

A. Principle

Basically all chromatographic systems consist of the stationary phase that may be solid,gel,liquid or a solid/liquid mixture that is immobilized and the mobile phase, which may be gas or liquid and it flows over or through the stationary phase. This partition is achieved in one of the following ways:

Adsorption chromatography : It is one of the oldest types of chromatography. It utilizes a mobile liquid or a gaseous phase that is adsorbed onto the surface of a stationary solid phase. The equilibrium between the mobile and the stationary phase accounts the separation of different solutes e.g. adsorption chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography.

Partition chromatography : It is based on a thin film formed on the surface of a solid support by a liquid stationary phase. Solutes equilibrate between the mobile and the stationary liquid (e.g. partition chromatography, reverse phase chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography, etc.).

Chromatography is a general technique available for the separation of closely related compounds in a sample. The term chromatography is derived from Greek where chroma means colour and graphein means to write. It is a very useful technique for both qualitative (preparative ) and quantitative (analytical) analyses. The separation is effected by the differential distribution of the components between two immiscible phases, namely, stationary and mobile phases. The various constituents of the mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate. The separation is based on differential partitioning (partition coefficient) between the mobile and stationary phases. The stationary phase is a porous medium through which the sample mixture percolates under the influence of a moving solvent (mobile phase).

Research related to biochemical analysis has been greatly benefited due to the development of chromatographic technique, since this technique makes it possible to resolve mixtures of closely related substances on a milligram to picogram range and to identify individual components by comparison with reference standard compounds. Chromatography ‘gives information where other analytical means have failed’ [Tswett, M. (1906) The macro-chemical and micro-chemical detection of carotene. Ber. Deut. Botan.Ges. 24 : 384- 393].

The relationship between gene and chromosome was suspected at the time of rediscovery of Mendelian^, Laws. During that period Montgomery (1901) and Walter Sutton (1902) working on grasshoppers showed that chromosomes occur in distinct pairs, often of recognizable shape and size, and that synapsis involves the union of maternal and paternal chromosomes, while Winiwarter (1901) concluded from his studies in rabbit ovaries that bivalents in the first meiotic division resulted from the chromosome pairing side by side and not end to end as believed by some other workers of that time . Theodor Bovery (1902) showed from his work on polyspermy in the fertilization of sea urchin eggs that the chromosomes of an individual were not equivalent (genetic information) to one another and hence a full chromosomal complement is essential for normal development of cell. Correns (1902) and Cannon (1902) pointed out close parallelism between Mendelian segregation and chromosome reduction during meiosis and concluded that genes are located on chromosomes but they, like de Vries, supposed that maternal and paternal chromosomes move to opposite poles during meiosis. In the same year Guyer established an understanding that random assortment between different pairs of chromosomes would give the independent assortment of genes required by Mendel. Ultimately Sutton (1903) brought together the ideas from cytology and genetics to clearly show the role of chromosomes in heredity and hence to establish the field of cytogenetics. Boveri also through his work, advanced many of the same ideas and thus the hypothesis correlating genes and chromosome transmission was established, which is known as the “Sutton-Boveri Hypothesis or chromosome theory of inheritance”.

Since the linking of the abnormal chromosome constitution of 45, XO to the peculiar phenotype of Turner’s syndrome (Ford 1959), an increased interest in the association between abnormal chromosome constitution and some clinical syndromes was perceived worldwide. The advent of “banding” techniques in the late 1960s helped to refine the detection accuracy and provided for more and better information about cytogenetic make-up of cells and contributed significantly to the localisation of certain genes (McKusik 1992). This phenotypic-karyotypic correlation was done on the basis of visual deletions, insertions, and duplications etc. of DNA segments of various lengths. However, many instances are known in which, because of a parent carrying a balanced translocation, two or more offsprings suffer from a deficiency and/or excess of chromosomal material. Some familial chromosomal arrangements are beyond detection by our current cytogenetic methods, although remarkable results have been forthcoming with high resolution banding. Similarly, paracentric inversions in a parent may not be evident except when carefully studied with high resolution banding, but can give rise to a variety of abnormalities in children.

Introduction
Chromosome engineering has emerged as a revolutionary approach, offering immense potential for genetic improvement by manipulating the structure and composition of chromosomes. Using genome engineering technologies, it is possible to introduce desirable traits into plants, such as disease resistance, increased yield, and enhanced nutritional content. To sustain the current standard of living, agriculture must yield significant increase in production (Gerland et al. 2014). Novel cutting-edge techniques developed for chromosome engineering hold great promise for addressing the challenges faced by modern agriculture, including climate change and food security. Engineering ability to precisely modify the genetic makeup of plants, chromosome engineering opens new avenues for creating novel cultivars with improved characteristics. While classical breeding has been successful in developing improved cultivars, it has its limitations. The process is time-consuming and often relies on probability to bring desired genetic changes. Since genes are organized into chromosomes, one important step to solve this issue is the development of novel genetic tools for chromosome reorganization and manipulation. When (Sears 1956) used X-ray irradiation to introduce foreign chromosome segments into the wheat chromosomes to transfer new traits, it was the beginning of plant chromosome engineering. Since then, plant chromosome engineering has evolved.
Applying methods such as chemicals and X-rays, induced mutagenesis was essential to the Green Revolution. Induction of polyploidy yielded more vigor and benefits like larger and higher-quality fruits (Osborn et al. 2003). Insect resistant and herbicide resistant transgenic crops successfully contributed to enhanced food production with less input into the farms. Genome editing enables precise modifications to increase disease resistance and stress tolerance (Ma et al. 2015). Considering practical features of chromosome engineering, this article discusses the use of induced mutagenesis, polyploidy induction, transgenesis, and genome editing, as the practical tools. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an in-depth analysis of chromosome engineering, exploring its scope, historical milestones, techniques, and its contributions to genetic diversity improvement and crop improvement. It also highlights the importance of efficient delivery techniques to overcome constraints such as off-target effects and concerns about genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

(Chroma - Colour; Some - Body)
A chromosome is a thread-like self-replicating genetic structure containing organized DNA molecule package found in the nucleus of the cell. Clear and detaile decriptions of mitotic chromosomes in plants and animals were published by Strasburger in 1875 and by the German scientist Walter Flemming in 1879- 1882.Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Waldeyer coined the term chromosome in 1888.
Normally Chromosomes are of two types
Autosomes - Control characters other than sex characters or carry genes for somatic characters.
Sex chromosomes (S    
Humans and most other mammals have two sex chromosomes X & Y, also called heterosome, odd chromosome, or idiosome. Females have two X chromosomes in diploid cells; males have an X and a Y chromosome. In birds the female (ZW) is hetero-gametic and male (ZZ) is homo-gametic.
Haploid: Haploid cells (N) have only one copy of each chromosome.
Diploid: Diploid cells (2N where N- chromosome number) have two homologous copies of each chromosome. The body cells of animals are diploid.In animals, gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid.
Homologous Chromosomes
Diploid organisms have two copies of each chromosome (except the sex chromosomes). Both the copies are ordinarily identical in morphology, gene content and gene order and hence known as homologous chromosomes.Each pair of chromosomes made up of two homologs.
Homologous chromosome is inherited from separate parents; one homolog comes from the mother and the other comes from the father.

Chromosomes are giant molecules of DNA

Found in nucleus: never leave except in cell division

Carry hereditary units, genes

Two homologous copies in diplod cells

Unwind when replicating or making RNA

Wind up (condense) in cell division

Attach to spindle and separate in meiosis & mitosis

Crossing over in prophase of 1st meiotic division

Chromosomes are equally distributed in mitosis, meiosis

Gametes have half the number of chromosomes as body cells

Sister chromatids are observed to split apart longitudinally in anaphase

Portrait of a Chromosome

• Cytogenetics is the study of chromosome abnormalities and associated effects on health or other traits.
• Excess or deficient genetic material can cause syndromes or end prenatal development.
• Chromosomes consist of highly coiled DNA, RNA, histones, and nonhistone proteins.

Telomeres and Centromeres are Essential

Telomeres consist of repeat sequences and protect chromosome tips.

A centromere is a constricted site where spindle fibers attach during cell division.

Centromeres are regions of repeated DNA bound to centromere-associated proteins.

Weaning foods

Introduction

Breast milk is natural and best for the growth and development of newborn babies. Although breast milk is adequate to provide an optimum nutrient till the age of six months but after that it is not sufficient to sustain optimum growth and fulfill their nutritional requirements. Various nutrients are required to supplement milk until child is ready to eat adult meal. This additional food along with the breast milk is referred as “complementary Food”. With adequate amount of complementary feeding breast-feeding continues up to two years of age and beyond so, referred as complementary feeding period.

Appropriate and adequate amount of complementary feeding helps in preventing malnutrition stunting and promoting growth. Introduction of this complementary food is called as weaning.

Weaning is the process of introducing adult food and beverage to the infant to support their growth and development. This is very crucial period in infant’s life. This is a period for diet transition as the nutrition requirements for growth and brain development is quite high. Introduction of various taste and texture promotes biting and chewing skills (Guthrie, 1975). Most six-month age children start eating semisolid foods. Weaning homogenized infant foods play a major role in the nutrition of infants (Martinez, 2004).As infants grow, their nutritional requirements also increase. To keep up this growing demand WHO recommends that infants start eating solid, semi-solid or soft foods at the age of 6 months to ensure sufficient nutrient intake.

Botany :Annual Chrysanthemum is a winter annual that can be grown either as pot plants or in groups as bed plants for various ornamental purposes. There are two types of annual Chyrsanthemums: Chrysanthemum Segetum and C.coronarium. Major varieties of Chrysanthemum segetum L. are Morning Star, Evening Star, Eastern Star, Blanca, Eldorado, Gloria, Isabel, Romeo, and yellow Stone while popular cultivars of C. coronarium L. include Nivea, Oreon, Albo, Golden Crown, Luteum, Tom Thumb Golden Gem, Tom Thumb-Primrose Gem and Tetra Comet. In addition to this, there is another type of annual Chrysanthemum, i.e. C. carinatum. Popular varieties of C. carinatum S. are Merry, Atrococcineum, Burridgeanum, Eclipse, Flammenspiel, John Bright and Northern Star.

Propagation

Annual Chrysanthemums can be propagated by seeds. Their sowing time depends upon climate. It varies in different parts of India. In the Northern plains, winter season annual Chrysanthemums are sown during September–October. The seeds are sown in nursery beds, earthen pots, seed pans or wooden seed trays. The seed compost should consist of one part each of garden soil, coarse sand, farmyard manure and leaf-mould. For preparing the nursery beds, the soil should be dug up thoroughly and sufficient farmyard manure, should be mixed in soil. Raised nursery beds of convenient size (normally 60cm wide and 15cm high) should be prepared. If soil is heavy, some quantity of sand may be added. It is better if the soil of nursery bed or earthen pots is sterilized with 2% formalin. For this, soil is drenched with formalin solution and is covered with polythene sheet for 45hr. Afterwards, the polythene is removed and soil is dried before sowing the seeds.

1. Introduction

Chrysanthemum is commonly known as ‘Guldaoudi’, “Queen of the East”, “Glory of East” or “Autumn Queen”. It is one of the most beautiful and widely cultivated flowers that can be grown for its aesthetic value as well as for its commercial potential. The word chrysanthemum is derived from two Greek words, viz. “Chrysos” means gold and “Anthemon” means ‘flower’ i.e. golden flower. Chrysanthemum is the only crop that offers a great genetic diversity of flower colour, shape, forms, size, easy to propagate, growing habit, longer flowering duration and excellent vase life. Based on the shape of flower heads and floret arrangement of petals it can be used as pot plants for indoors and outdoors decoration as well as exhibition purpose; as cut flowers for flower arrangements, bouquets making and vase decoration; loose flower for making garlands, worshipping purpose and for bedding and garden decoration. Tall cultivars are suitable for background planting in borders and the dwarf and compact can be planted in front rows. 

Chrysomelid beetle : Aulacophora foveicollis : ChrysomelidaeAphids : Macrosiphoniella  sanborni; Myzus  persicae; Brachicaudus  helichrysi; Aphis  gossypi; Aphis fabae; Aulocorthum circumflexum: Aphid

Chrysanthemum   is infested by different species of aphids. Aphids are small, soft bodied insects and their colour varies with species. Both nymphs and adults cluster on the growing stem tips and under surface of leaves. As a result, the plants show loss of vigor, distortion of leaves and flowers, yellowing, premature leaf fall and stunted growth. The damaged plants bear only undersized buds and they remain unopened. Peak damage period is November-December. Secretion of honeydew by the aphids favor development of sooty mould which hinders photosynthesis and the plants become stunted. They are also vectors of virus diseases.

Chrysanthemum (chrysos =golden; anthos = flower) is a popular flower crop of commercial importance known as the “Queen of the East”. It ranks next only to rose among flower crops in the world.