eChapters

ABSTRACT

Asuccessful micro grafting technique in Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) was developed using in vitro germinated seedling as root stock and shoots from stage II cultures as scions. Grafting success was dependent on the method of grafting, size of the scion and age of the root stock. Among the methods tried, side and cleft grafting were found to be suitable. Due to the ease of operation and faster union, side grafting was preferred. High levels of graft union were obtained when 2 - 3 cm long shoots from stage II cultures were grafted on to 8 - 9 days old in vitro raised root stocks in full strength MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium supplemented with Kinetin (2.5 mg l^-1), NAA (0.5 mg l^-1) and Brassinolide (1mg l^-1). The very high growth of grafted scion was obtained, when the micro grafts were transferred into MS medium containing full strength macroelements supplemented with Kinetin (5mg l^-1), NAA (1mg l^-1) and Brassinolide (1mg l^-1). The micro grafts after a process of hardening could be successfully transplanted into soil. Micro grafting techniques standardized could be used for rejuvenation of shoot explants of mature tree.

8.1 Introduction
The chemical composition of milk intended for market or milk product manufacturing must be standardised in numerous dairy processes. Standardising milk may necessitate the regulation of a single component (typically fat) while permitting the other components to shift or regulate two or more components concurrently. Definition: The term “standardisation” of milk denotes the process of adjusting the fat and solids-not-fat percentages of milk to the desired value in order to comply with the legal or other requirements.
Objectives of standardization are
1. To ensure that specific milk and dairy products meet legal requirements.
2. To offer a consistent product to the consumer.
3. To guarantee economic efficiency in production.
The volume of milk available for sale is increased by the addition of skim milk, and the separation of cream enables the production of other value-added dairy products, such as butter, table cream, or other high-fat products.

Seed size is an important parameter of seed vigor as it in influences the performance of seed in soil. Seed bulk at harvest contains a wide range of seed sizes but these may not all be of equal value for sowing. Farmers have always realized the necessary of using uniform seeds for good viability to obtain high emergence and growth. This will also help in getting optimum plant population and higher yields.
 
The influence of seed size on seedling vigor and crop productivity has already been proven since the days Hannaford who was considered as father of seed processing. To achieve uniformity in seed size this optimum sieve/screen size is very critical for optimum seed recovery and economical seed yield. Though the screen sizes are standardized for different crops but vary with different varieties. The shop floor should continuously explore and fine tune screen sizes for different varieties.

Abstract

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) is an important pulse crop of India and its production is greatly affected by wilt disease. Pigeonpea wilt is a very destructive soil borne disease caused by Fusarium udum. In the experiments, ten treatments were applied viz.; Neem leaf extracts (T₁), Garlic extracts (T₂), Tulsi leaf extracts (T₃), bio-agents Trichoderma viride (T₄), Pseudomonas fluorescens (T₅), Polymer coating (polycot) @ 4 ml diluted in 5 ml of water per kg of seed (T₆), Polymer coaating + Trichoderma viride @ 6.0 g per kg seed (T₇), Polymer + Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 6.0 g per kg seed (T₈), Polymer coating (polycot) 4 ml diluted in 5 ml of water per kg seed + Vitavax power @ 3g per kg seed (T₉) and T₁₀ served as untreated. The observations were recorded six times at 10 days intervals and started from 40 days. These polymer alone @ 4.0ml per kg and in combination with bioagents and fungicides were applied to seed were tested against Fusarium udum. The highest per cent disease control and per cent wilt disease incidence were recorded 96.09 to 64.09 and 2.74 to 33.32, respectively in T₉ (Polymer + Vitavax power @ 3g per kg seed) at 10 days intervals followed by T₈ (Polymer + P. fluorescens) gave 94.46 to 53.06 per cent inhibition, T₇ (92.39 to 52.74) and T₆ (90.97 to 49.73) however, the lowest per cent disease control was noticed as 76.19 to 40.13 per cent in T₁ (Neem leaves extract) amongst all treatments except untreated.

The valorization of agri-biomass and organic waste is governed by a mix of regulations, standards, and policies aimed at promoting resource efficiency, reducing environmental impact, and fostering sustainable development. These measures include national and international initiatives, sector-specific laws, and economic instruments designed to incentivize waste management and promote the utilization of byproducts for energy, materials, and other applications. The valorization of agri-biomass and organic waste into biofuels, bio-based chemicals, bioenergy, and other value-added products is increasingly being recognized as a critical pillar of sustainable development, circular economy, and climate action. In India, the regulatory and policy framework surrounding this sector has evolved significantly in recent years, reflecting growing governmental interest in managing agricultural residues, reducing pollution, promoting renewable energy, and incentivizing green industries. A wide range of ministries—such as the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoA&FW), and Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG)—as well as regulatory bodies like Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) play pivotal roles in formulating and enforcing the relevant policies, regulations, and technical standards. One of the flagship policies in this domain is the National Policy on Biofuels (2018, revised 2022), which provides a roadmap for blending biofuels such as ethanol, biodiesel, and compressed biogas (CBG) with conventional fuels. It promotes the use of second-generation (2G) feedstocks like agricultural residues, municipal solid waste, and non-edible oilseeds for biofuel production. Under this policy, the government supports financial incentives, viability gap funding, R&D investments, and market linkages to boost bio-refinery infrastructure. This is supplemented by the SATAT (Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation) initiative, launched by MoPNG, which aims to establish 5,000 CBG plants across India using agri-residues, cattle dung, and organic waste, thereby encouraging decentralized waste valorization.

Food processing sector in India has largest segment of bakery with more than 1.3 million tonnes of production from organized sector and 1.7 million tons from 1,000,000 unorganized sectors. India is second largest producer of biscuits globally. Our bakery industry is positioned third in generation of revenues among processed food sector.

In India, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOH&FW), dealing with the subject of food quality and safety at the national level, has been designated the nodal ministry for maintaining food standards. The instrument for ensuring food quality and safety at the national level is through a legislation titled Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (PFA) and Rules made there under as amended from time-to-time.

Pollution is continuously increasing in India. To control ambient air pollution CPCB has prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards

This chapter introduces the standards, certification and labelling systems that establish confidence in wool quality and commercial descriptions. It discusses the roles of the International Wool Textile Organisation, ISO and the Bureau of Indian Standards in developing testing and product standards. Fibre-content declarations, care labels, Woolmark certification, quality assurance, accreditation and traceability are examined. The chapter also considers geographical indications and protection of heritage products, showing how standards and certification support fair trade, consumer protection and premium positioning.

First discovered by Scottish surgeon sir Alexander ogston (1880) in infected tissues. He named it as staphylococcus” (Greek staphyle, bunch of grapes;
KOKKAS, berry).
Systematics
Domain : Bacteria
Phylum : Firmicutes
Class : Bacilli
Order : Bacillales
Family : Staphylococcaceae
Genus : Staphylococcus
Species : Staph. aureus
Staph. Intermedius
Staph. hyicus
Habitat and Ecology
Staphylococcus occurs worldwide in mammals although the spread of staphylococcal strains between different animal species is limited. They colonise the nasal cavity, skin and mucous membranes and can be transient in the intestinal tract. It is an opportunist type organism.

The diseases caused by Staphylococci are found in all avian species and reported through out the world.

Etiology

There are more than 45 species and 25 subspecies in the genus Staphylococcus.

S. aureus is the most common species of birds causing disease. Staphylococci are Gram - positive, coccoid and when grown on solid medium, bacteria form grape like clusters.

Sir Alexander Ogston (1880) first isolated Micrococci in pus and in 1883 he subdivided them into two groups i.e. Staphylococcus and Streptococcus. He also first proposed the name ‘Staphylococcus’ (Greek ‘staphyle’ means bunch of grapes and ‘kokkos’ means berry). Experiments of Bumm (1885), Garre (1885) and Bockhart (1887) established its relationship with human infections. As well as Nocard (1887) first isolated Staphylococcus from mastitis in sheep and found its pathogenic significance in animals.

Properties of Genus

Morphology : Staphylococci are gram positive cocci, capsulated, non-sporing and non-motile. Each coccus cell is 1µm in diameter.  They are arranged in a group or grape like cluster as cell division occurs in more than one plane. During preparation of smear and staining the cluster is sometimes broken and cocci are seen in pair or single (Fig. 1).

Staphylococcal capsule is polysaccharide in nature. The capsule can inhibit phagocytosis and helps in virulence.

 Staphylococcal cell wall contains three major components i.e. peptidoglycan (PG), teichoic acid (TA) and surface proteins.

Abstract

Among the 29 Indian states, 14 are linked with 585 regulated mandis with electronic national agricultural market. Across the states, 7.35 million farmers with 53,163 commission agents are registered in these regulated mandis. Every year Government of India announces modified agricultural policies to safeguard the interest of the farming community. Amongst the policies, one of the mechanisms to protect the producers from price fluctuations is Minimum Support Price (MSP). While determining MSP, government takes into account cost of production, cost of living, as well as economic and socio-political factors. For the past two decades, it has been observed that one MSP graph is moving upward but still the farming community seems dissatisfied. The reasons behind MSP variation among states include offering bonus prices additionally with MSP by some states, due to variation in government procurement procedures and policies. As a result, MSP is playing an important role in manoeuvring of prices amongst the various state markets. MSP deviation provides chances for the private sector to take undue advantage and the farmers are adversely affected. The study analyses existence of deviation in mandi prices of staple food between two states from year 2007 to 2018. It will disclose whether centralized price system reduce the cost of government and aid the farmer to get fair valuation.

Description and Distribution
Star Anise is the dried, star-shaped fruit derived from Illicium verum which is an evergreen tree attaining a height of 8-15 meter and a diameter of 25 cm. Leaves are entire, 10 -15 cm long, and 2.5-5.0 cm broad, elliptic to oblanceolate; flowers are solitary, white to red colored, fruits are star-shaped, reddish brown in color, consisting of 6-8 capsules (follicles), arranged in a whorl, radiating from the top of a slender short central stem; each follicle is 12-17 mm long, boat-shaped, hard and wrinkled, containing a seed; seeds are brown, compressed-ovoid, smooth, shiny and brittle. The carpels have a pleasant anise-like odor and an aromatic, refreshing, sweet, anise-like taste; the seeds have the same taste, but, to much lesser extent. It is available, whole, and is not usually ground. The plant is indigenous to tropical and sub tropical East Asia. It is extensively cultivated in a limited area with particular ecological factor, in Kwangsi in south-east China, mainland Tonkin in Indo-China, and is mostly imported from China and Indo-China. No import statistics are, however, available for Star Anise. It is now produced to some extent in Arunachal Pradesh in North- East India.
Area and Production
Star Anise is a recent introduction to India, from China, which is the major producer, supplier and exporter of the crop. No organized commercial-scale cultivation has yet been started in the country, but, it is reported to be gradually picking up. According to the latest report by the Deputy Director of The Spices Board, located in Guwahati, in North-East India, about 12.5 tonnes of Star

Star gooseberry also known as Otaheite gooseberry   (Phyllanthus acidus Skeels) is an important underexploited fruit of family Euphorbiaceae. Phyllanthus distichus Muell. Arg., Phyllanthus acidissimus (Blanco) Muell. Arg., Cicca acida Merr., Cicca disticha L. are the synonyms of star gooseberry. Food value of star gooseberry / 100g of edible portion is given below.

The stiffness of starch gels from different starches at 5% concentration was shown in decreasing order of stiffness in the following table. Of the cereal starches corn starch gel was firmest followed by wheat and rice starch gels. Among the roots and tubers starches, potato yielded a ropy paste, arrowroot a soft paste while cassava starch gave viscous fluid.

STARCH : Starch is a complex carbohydrate that has been cursed by dieters in years past, but that now is praised by nutritionists as a particularly healthful source of energy. In food preparation at home starch is a very important as a thickening agent. However starch is but one of several polysaccharides that are used as thickners in the food industry.

STRUCTURE : Although starch is the name used by nutritionists this complex carbohydrate actually consists of two fractions amylose and amylopectin. The two fractions occur together in starch from most sources so the overall behaviour of starch is determined in large measure by the relative amounts of amylose and amylopectin. Each of the fraction has unique properties that contribute to the functionality of starch from various plant sources.

These hydrolysates are dried conversion products available in a powdered form. Up to 20 DE they are normally referred to as malto-dextrins or hydrolised cereal solids. Above 20 DE they are more commonly termed spray dried glucose syrup solids.

Applications

Spray dried hydrolysates find application in a wide range of processed and convenience foods. Principally as filler/carrier and sweetness reducer.

They are ideally suited for blending into powdered formulations, and serve the following purposes.

As filler/carrier, they can

(1) Reduce loss of volume in contents on storage or in transit;

(2) Absorb fats and oils to retain free-flowing properties;