eChapters

Maturity (commercial or horticultural): Refers to the stage at which the produce is optimally accepted to the consumer.

Maturity index: The maturity at harvest determines the quality and postharvest shelf-life of the fresh fruits. The study of maturity indices helps to harvest the crop at right time.

Judging maturity: There are various means of judging maturity but they vary according to the kind of fruits, local soil and climatic conditions, but generally farmers follow visual means (appearance). But this is not a perfect method, many a times it may mislead the farmers.

5.1 Pruning
One of the most crucial aspects of mulberry farming is pruning. It involves methodically cutting off some branches in order to give the mulberry plants a manageable size and form as well as to encourage the bud to sprout and develop new branches. The primary goal of pruning is to increase leaf output and quality. In addition, it is used to harvest the shoots for silkworm rearing and to do various inter-cultivation tasks including weeding, ploughing, applying manure and fertilizer and proper timing of the rearing of silkworms. To prune without breaking the bark or stem, use a sharp secateur, pruning saw or sickle. The plants in rainfed environments are only ever trimmed once a year, at a height of 10–20 cm above the ground level in June or July when the monsoon season begins. After that the plants are let to grow into bushes with many branches till the next year. Leaf harvesting is limited to the leaf picking method.
a) Pruning Types: Pruning is categorized according to the height of the stem at which it is cut. Bottom pruning is the practice of cutting the main stem at ground level after each harvest so as not to allow a stump to emerge. When low-cut pruning is used, the main stump of the plant is developed by cutting it 10 to 30 centimetres above the ground. At around 60 and 100 centimetres above the ground, medium and high cut pruning is performed respectively.

Seed Viability Test

Germination test for a seed lot is a pre-requisite to know its potential of emergence under field condition. However, this test requires few days to weeks and a month in some cases. Tetrazolium test gives quick information on seed viability or germinability. It makes possible to distinguish red coloured living parts of seeds from the colourless dead ones. Staining of seeds determines  viability.  Completely  stained  seeds  are  viable  while,  partially and comparatively unstained seeds are non-viable. This test is not valid as compared to seed germination test.

Introduction

Present work report the study on Jakekur dam situated 4 km. from Omerga

The degradation of dam has occurred not only due to influents inflow but also by sanitation, domestic sewage, agricultural waste, and other activities around the dam like washing cloths, cattle, vehicles, and dumping of solid waste. Apart from it a large number of heavy metals is contributed by corrosion of metal pipe, runoff water from surrounding area during rainy season discharge of decorative paints in water bodies.

Geographical and morphological features of Jakekur dam.

Catchments area : 2110 hector

Gross storage : 10.17 TM C

Full reservoir level : 10 meter.

Length of the dam : 21.25 km.

Height of the dam : 14.80 meter.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is defined as deteriorative mechanism occurring with time that increase the seeds vulnerability and decrease ability to survive.
2. Lettuce seeds develop red necrotic lesions in cotyledons known as _____.
3. _____ morphological changes occur in ground nut due to deterioration.

Ficus carica L, one of the oldest plant species in China, is abound in Shandong, Xinjiang, Jiangsu province. Fig belongs to the family Moraceae and genus Ficus. It is native to Middle East region (West Asia), but now it is widely distributed in Asia and North America.

Cultivars/Varieties: Depending upon the nature of flowers and the method of pollination there are four distinct classes of fig- i) Common fig or Adriatic fig ii) Capri fig, iii) Smyrna fig and iv) San Pedro fig. Kadota, Mission, Adriatic, Brown turkey, Celeste and Conadria are some important varieties of common fig.

Uses

Fig is consumed fresh or dried, preserved, candied or canned. Fresh figs are very delicious, wholesoms and nutritious and used as dessert or for making jam. Due to its highly perishable nature it is dried and marketed. The fruit fresh, or dried is valued for its laxative property. Dried and ground fig can be used as a substitute for coffee.

Bronchitis may be defined as a distressing and often serious type of inflammation affecting the windpipe, or bronchial tubes, in the chest. There are two types of bronchitis:

1. Acute Bronchitis
2. Chronic Bronchitis

Acute bronchitis: In acute bronchitis the larynx, trachea and bronchial tubes are acutely inflamed. The tissues are swollen because of irritation; large amount of mucus is secreted and poured into the bronchial tubes to protect the inflamed mucous membrane. Unless this thick, sticky material is removed, it may obstruct the windpipe, causing more severe diseases like atelactasis and pneumonia. The common cold is probably the most frequent cause of acute bronchitis.

During the acute stage of bronchitis there is usually a high fever and some difficulty in breathing. There is a constant cough. Hoarseness may also be present and some pain in the chest. Difficulty in breathing continues until the inflammation has decreased. And thick secretions have removed. Chilliness is present with internal coldness, also cold hands and feet, rawness beneath the sternum, some tightness and oppression of the chest, cough may be dry, hard, ringing, expulsive, paroxysmal, tearing which leaves great soreness under the sternum. After few days the cough, which was at first dry, becomes moist and is accompanied by slight expectoration of mucus and occasionally some blood. As the amount of expectoration increases all the other symptoms decreases, and then in turn abnormal secretion and expectoration also decreases at the end of 7 to 10 days.

1. Inflammation of pericardium or pericardial sac is known as

a) Endocarditis b) Pericarditis

c) Myocarditis d) Epicarditis

The seed moisture content is the amount of water present in the seed. It is generally expressed in percentage of dry and wet seed weight. It is the loss in weight of the original sample when it is dried. High moisture content in seed sample favors the mechanical damage, seed longevity, incidence of disease and insect pests.

Objective

i. To know the moisture content of seeds by suitable methods
ii. To suggest the seed drying.

Materials Required

Sample, reagents, beakers, conical flasks, pestle and mortar, funnels, volumetric flasks, pipettes, weighing balance, spectrophotometer/colorimeter.

Reagents

    1.    2% Metaphosphoric Acid Solution: Weigh 20 g of HPO₃ and dilute to 1 litre in water or 4% oxalic acid.
    2.    Dye Solution: Dissolve 100 mg of 2, 6 Dichlorophenol-indophenol dye (Phenolindo-2,6- dichlorophenol sodium salt, AR, C₁₂H₆Cl₂NNaO₂ 2-3H₂O) and 84 mg of sodium bicarbonate (sodium hydrogen carbonate AR, NaHCO₃) in hot (85-95ºC) distilled water. Cool and make up the vol 100 ml. Filter and dilute 25 ml of the dye to 500 ml with distilled water. 
    3.    Standard Ascorbic Acid: Weigh 50 mg of ascorbic acid (AR) and make up to 50 ml with 2% metaphosphoric acid or 4% Oxalic acid solution (1000 ppm i.e. 1000 µg/ml). Dilute 4 ml of this solution to 100 ml with 2% HPO₃ or 4% oxalic acid. (1ml = 40 µg ascorbic acid).

Mixture of nutrientscomprisingcarbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water are feed stuffs. From the intestinal wall, very few of such nutrients can pass directly to the body tissues, therefore they must be degraded down into simple compounds before they pass through the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T.) intothe bloodand lymph. This degradation process is regarded as ‘digestion’. Thereafter, the movement of these simple compounds through the mucous membrane oftheG.I.Tract into the blood iscalled absorption. Metabolism is the utilization of these nutrients by the animal body and then excretion of the end products takes place from the body. The digestion of feeds is carried out by three means namely, mechanical action: mastication in the mouth and the muscular contraction of G.I.Tract; chemical action: this is carried out by enzymes secreted by digestive juices and microbial action: this is also enzymatic action, but the enzymes are secreted by microbes instead of host.

In ruminants, it is the rumen which harbours bacteria, protozoa and fungi (Fig. 1) ; whereas in non-ruminants, it is the large intestine (Fig. 2). There are four compartments in the stomach-reticulum, omasum, rumenand abomasums. Reticulumprovides ruminantadditionalspacefor storage.Also, if byanychance, foreign bodies like nails, wires etc. reach over here alongwith feed, they are retained for longer periods and thus, soft organs are protected. Omasum squeezes out water from the feed with the help of its strong muscular walls. In the suckling calves or lambs, the two compartments-rumen and its continuation reticulum are less developed and both are joined by a tube like structure -oesophageal or reticular groove, which directly opens into abomasum. That is why in these sucklings, milk reaches straight into the abomasum, which is the true stomach. Rumen develops at about six weeks of age in these young ones. As these sucklings begin to eat solid feed, both rumen and reticulum enlarge greatly and separate. Now oesophageal or reticular groove does not exist.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ refers to the application of pesticides to seeds before sowing or storage to protect the seeds.
2. The chemical gases as fumes are used to control the pests in seed lots is called as _____.
3. The treatments given to the seeds prior to or during storage to protect the seed are called _____ treatment.

Grapes belongs to the family Vitaceae and genus Vitis. The region between Black and Caspian Sea is considered to be the origin of grapes. Its association with man is believed to be older than that of rice or wheat. Viticulture and wine-making started in Egypt at about 3000-4000 BC. It is presumed that it spread to India in 620 B.C. The medical treatises written by Charaka and Sushruta in the 1^st century AD reveal use of grapes for medicinal purpose. Viticulture in India started in early 1960 and today assumes an important position in horticulture crop in view of its area occupied, production, value addition and job creation in both rural and urban areas.

Popular Varieties of Grapes

Thomson Seedless and its clones viz.; Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka and Manik Chaman; Perlette, Banglore Blue (Isabella), Kishmish Chernyi (Sharad Seedless), Muscat Hamburg (Gulabi), Flame Seedless, Red Globe, Crimson Seedless and Manjri Naveen (A clonal selection from Centennial Seedless).

Uses

Grapes has several uses like table purpose, raisin, juice, wine making and canning, etc. It has several medicinal and curative properties. It is used in Ayurvedic preparations for making Kada or arishtam (herbal tonic or medicine). The grapes which are used as a fresh fruit are designated as table grapes. These are having attractive appearance, and good eating and shipping quality and long shelf-life. The grapes that can be dried are included in the Raisin grapes. Wine grapes which are primarily used to produce wine are known as wine grapes. In many parts of the world, grapes are grown for wine preparation. Grapes with high acid and low sugars contents are suitable for wine preparation.

It may be defined as a chronic condition of the liver in which there is an increase of the connective tissue, a decrease in its size, and a degeneration of the parenchyma.

Alcohol is the most common cause of the cirrhosis of liver. Alcohol reaches the liver through blood stream. Other causes may include improperly prepared foods, poisonous substances, drugs like arsenic, phosphorus, the infectious diseases like syphilis and obstruction of the bile ducts.

Cirrhosis of the liver produced by alcohol abuse is known as portal cirrhosis where as cirrhosis caused by some obstruction such as a stone in the common duct or some narrowing of the bile duct leading from the liver to the small intestine is called as Biliary cirrhosis.

1 Major haematopoetic organ in adults is

a) Spleen b) Liver

c) Bone marrow d) Kidney

Seed storage is the preservation of viable seeds from the time of collection to the required for sowing. It is important to get adequate plant stands in addition to healthy and vigourous plants.

Objectives

i. To maintain initial seed quality during storage period by providing suitable conditions.

ii. To maintain the seed germination and emergence rates.

iii. To prevent the seed deterioration during storage period.

iv. To maintain the physical and physiological seed qualities.

Materials Required

Specific gravity bottles, weighing balance, sample, pipettes, thermometer, distilled water 

Procedure

    1.    Take the sample and distilled water record their temperatures (they should be same for correct estimation). If the temperatures are not same bring both to 20ºC or the room temperature.
    2.    Clean and dry the specific gravity bottles properly before use.
    3.    Record the tare weight of the specific gravity bottle (T) alongwith the stopper.
    4.    Carefully fill the specific gravity bottle with distilled water up to the brim and then place the stopper tightly so as to exclude extra water. 
    5.    Dry the exteriors of the bottle with a tissue paper
    6.    Record the weight of (bottle + water) say A
    7.    Similarly, fill the same specific gravity bottle with test sample and record the weight (bottle + sample) say B
    8.    Calculate the specific gravity of solution using the following formula

Drug designing is the approach of finding drugs by design based on their biological targets. The substance used for medical purpose, either alone or in mixture that changes the state or function of cells, organs or organism as a whole is known as a drug. So typically a drug target is a key molecule involved in particular metabolic or signaling pathway that is specific to disease condition or pathology, or to the infectivity or survival of a microbial pathogen. Drugs may be designed that bind to the active region and inhibit the key molecule that causes disease. However these drugs would also have to be designed in such a way that they should not affect any other important molecules similar to the key molecule. These can also be used to enhance the normal pathway of metabolism by promoting specific molecules that may have been suppressed in disease state.

Thousands andthousands ofsamples ofvarious feeds andfoddersweresubjected to Weende analysis fortheir chemical composition have been depictedin various manuals. Such proximate principles of these feeds provide only the potential value forreference or consultationpurpose, but not theactualvalue of feedstuffs. Losses of nutrientsinfaeces(solids), urine (liquid), gasesetc.duringthe digestion, absorption andmetabolismof theanimal shouldalso be taken into consideration. Therefore, a need arises to conduct digestibilitytrial or experiment for the feeds in the ruminant animals. Major portion of the nutrients present in the feeds are not properly digested in the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T.), hence not completely available to the animal body. Digestibility is that portion of a feed or any single nutrient of feed, which is not excreted in the faeces or dung and it is therefore, assumed to be absorbed by the animal. When this digestibility is expressed in percentage, it is termed as ‘digestibility coefficient (D.C.)’.