eChapters

ABSTRACT

Eastern part of the Uttar Pradesh falls in mid-Gangetic plain commonly called as ‘Purvanchal’. It is divided into three ecozones : i) North eastern tarai, ii) Eastern Plains, and iii) Vindhyan. Most of the farmers of the region have subsistence agriculture with small land holding. Although total forest area is 10.69 per cent of the geographical area, the actual well stocked forests (medium and good forests) in the region are confined to 3.51%. Vindhyan zone indicates higher dependence for fire wood (35% of the total need) on natural forests. Cow dung is major source used as fuel in Eastern plains (65% of the fuel requirement). The cropping systems are different in rainfed and irrigated lands. Surveys of different parts of the eastern U. P. indicate that people have a progressive attitude towards agroforestry. However, due to land hunger most of the farmers develop homesteads. Agrihorticulture system is most popular system adopted by large and medium farmers in the region. Agrisilvihorticulture system is adopted by the farmers of Eastern plains and North eastern tarai zones. Agrisilviculture, Silvihorticulture, Agrisilvihorticulture and sivipastoral systems researched by us, are recommended for adoption by the farmers.

Abstract
India holds a dominant position in the global production and export of castor, accounting for nearly 88% of global and leading the international the international castor oil trade. This chapter investigates the status of castor production and trade dynamics, highlighting India’s evolving role in commercial agriculture and export-oriented strategies. Castor, a non-edible oilseed with significant industrial applications, is primarily cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh. The study explores trends in area, production and yield across states and districts, alongside export trends over a 15 year period (2006-06 to 2019- 20). Results show positive growth in export quantity, value and unit price, despite fluctuations, supported by favourable policies and quality improvements. Using the Markov chain model, the direction of trade analysis reveals China as the most stable and dominant importer, followed by Netherlands and France. The USA also shows emerging potential. Instability indices indicate relatively low volatility in trade metrics. The finding suggest that while India maintains a strong global presence, strategic efforts are needed to sustain existing markets and explore new opportunities, especially in emerging economies offering better prices and reliability.
Keywords: Castor Oil Exports, High-Value Commercial Crops, Direction of Trade, Global and Castor Trade Dynamics

What is a Farming-Based Livelihood System?
At its core, a farming-based livelihood system is one where agriculture (crop production, livestock rearing, or a combination) forms the primary source of income, food security, and overall well-being for a household or community. It’s more than just growing food; it’s an interconnected system involving:
• Production Activities: This includes all the activities directly related to farming, like:
º Crop cultivation (e.g., cereals, fruits, vegetables, cash crops)
º Livestock rearing (e.g., cattle, poultry, goats, pigs, aquaculture)
º Agroforestry (integrating trees and shrubs into farming systems)
º Soil and water management
• Assets: These are the resources available to the farming household. Key asset categories are often described as:
º Natural Capital: Land, water, soil quality, biodiversity, climate.
º Physical Capital: Infrastructure (irrigation, roads, storage facilities), tools, equipment, livestock.
º Human Capital: Skills, knowledge, labor availability, health, education.
º Financial Capital: Savings, access to credit, insurance.
º Social Capital: Networks, community organizations, access to information, trust.

Abstract

Agro-food industries generate a large amount of by-products and wastes. These byproducts and wastes have a negative impact in terms of the environmental concern due to the increase of pollutant disposal, and industrial sustainability because of high costs related to their management. These byproducts and wastes are rich in minerals, sugars and proteins. The composition and characteristics of wastes from different food processing industries vary and rely upon the production technique and the nature of the product. India is the second largest producer of rice/paddy in the world and the utilization of rice bran is gaining importance. However, a small fraction of these have been utilized. In case of fruits and vegetables, industrial processing of potato generates between 70 and 140 thousand tons of peels worldwide annually. Moreover, 37% of world’s total annual production of banana is shared by India. Hence, to minimize the disposal fees and trash collection new policies and methods have been developed for handling and treatment of wastes and byproducts. This chapter envisages the status of different agro-food industrial byproducts and wastes for the development of different food and non-food products.

Abstract

Alleviating plant salt stress and remediating saline soils are of great economic interest. Beneficial microbes such as arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), etc. are associated with many plant species including trees. These beneficial microbes can cope up with salinity and help the plants to survive in such soils. Diversity status of beneficial microbes from the samples collected from different salt affected areas was investigated by many researchers. They screened and identified the efficient PGPR isolates isolated from saline areas for plant growth hormone (IAA) production and phosphate solubilization. The significance and highlights of the recent research as well as the past understanding of beneficial microbes and their role in reclamation of saline areas is discussed in this paper.

Abstract

Several methods of composting are in practice in India such as the anaerobic pit composting, Indore method, NADEP method, bio dung method and vermicomposting. Wastes at the domestic, community and industrial level, can be converted to compost as a viable solution in solid waste management, as well as compost production as a viable micro-enterprise functioning as income generation program. Agricultural waste and residues are an excellent resource for composting at rural centres. Beneficial use of this compost in organic farming as well as in soil bioremediation has been well proven.

Women are the backbone of rural economy. They play a significant role in domestic and socio-economic life of the society. National development is not possible without developing this important and substantial segment of any society. To achieve anything, women are obliged to surmount host of obstacles. The difficulty in gaining access to land, credit and agricultural inputs hampers their potential as producers who feed the world. Barriers of tradition and discrimination have limited their access towards technology, training and education. Moreover, the extension approaches and strategies usually followed for transfer of technology to women are not keeping match with their specific needs and problems. The World Food Summit convened by FAO in 1996 drew up a plan of action to address the major impediments to universal food security. It also called for the full and equal participation of both the genders so as to ensure gender equality and empowerment of women.

Due to their remarkable health benefits, such as their low glycemic index, rich amino acid profiles, and abundance of B vitamins and antioxidants, little millets, formerly hailed as nutri-cereals, are once again becoming important dietary staples. These crops, which include a variety of species like finger millet, foxtail millet, and barnyard millet, have stimulated innovation in the food business by producing value-added goods like rice analogs, noodles, and biscuits. Additionally, their medicinal qualities could help advance research on nutraceuticals. Small millets are essential to climate-smart agriculture because of their renowned resilience, which allows them to flourish on marginal soils and in difficult climates. Breeding efforts seeking to create climate-resilient, high-yielding, and lucrative cultivars can benefit greatly from their extensive genetic diversity, which is conserved in traditional landraces and farmer-managed cultivars. Even with their potential, small millets’ genetic development projects are still in their early stages, requiring concentrated efforts to find trait-specific donors and enhance breeding techniques. In addition to preserving their ethnobotanical and cultural heritage, the conservation of their genetic resources supports international initiatives for environmental sustainability and food security. Small millets have the potential to become a vital component of sustainable and nutritionally enhanced agricultural systems by incorporating cutting edge agricultural techniques and speeding up breeding improvements.

A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Many definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function. Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future, or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type.According to the Food andAgriculture Organization definition, forests covered 4 billion hectares or approximately 30% of the world’s land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of earth, and are distributed around the globe. Forests account for 75% of the  gross primary production  of the earth’s  biosphere, and contain 80% of the earth’s plant biomass.

The Indian ancient texts have some mention of the forest and the activities that were performed in the forests. Forests were revered by the people and a large number of religious ceremonies centred on trees and plants. Ancient Hindu culture is said to have evolved in the forest. The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata give an attractive description of forests. The Agni Purana, written about 4000 years ago, stated that man should protect trees to have material gains and religious blessings. Around 2500 years ago, Gautama Buddha preached to his followers to plant trees. There is enough evidence to show that dense forests once covered India. But the growing population and man’s dependence on the forest for infrastructural developments caused the depletion of forests.

HISTORY OF INDIAN FORESTS

The earliest indication of forestry administration in India is found in 300 BC. It was during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. He realized the importance of the forests and appointed a Superintendent of Forests who looked after forests and wildlife. Later Ashoka continued the process. He launched programmes to plant trees on a large scale. Much importance was also given for planting trees along roadsides and temple premises. These rules continued even during the Gupta period.

A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Many definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function. Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future, or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, forests covered 4 billion hectares or approximately 30% of the world’s land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of earth, and are distributed around the globe. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the earth’s biosphere, and contain 80% of the earth’s plant biomass

Classification Of Forest

Forests have been classified in different ways. Forests can be classified on the basis of method of regeneration, age, composition, object of management, ownership, canopy density, stand density or growing stock.

Introduction

Beginning with the Green revolution organised training of farmers and extension personnel in the country has now come of age. Since, multiple training institutions government and non-govt have come up, playing a pivotal role in transferring the technical knowledge and know how to the farming community. The turning point and a giant leap in farmers’ training came with the establishment of Farm Science Centre or Krishi Vigyan Kendras by ICAR during 1974. Having district as its jurisdiction area, KVKs have played crucial role in transfer of technology through a well qualified and trained work force at its disposal. As an organization, KVK has its own process for managing the trainers/ subject matter specialists in order to keep them motivated and dedicated to the service of poor farming community. Keeping in consideration some of the job related attributes/ factors that contributes towards effectiveness and efficiency of the SMSs, the present study has been conceived with the main objective- ‘To study the job satisfaction of the KVK trainers’.

In irrigated agriculture, water is the most important and precious input among all the inputs required for the biological activities of the plant. It is also a key input not only for ensuring food security but also for sustainable socio economic development. Water plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural production and provides food security. On a global scale, 97.5% of water resources are salty ocean water, with only only 2.5% being fresh water. The bulk of the latter occurs in the polar ice and glaciers, as well as deep aquifers, some in water bodies like rivers and lakes, and in soil moisture. On the whole, less than 1% of the world’s fresh water resources are available for human use. The world’s average annual precipitation of about 1100 mm, marked by wide variation in water availability, is creating a great divide in regions, resulting in plenty of regimes and scare/acute shortage regions.

In India, the average annual precipitation, including snowfall, is 4000 billion cubic meter (bcm), of which water availability in the river systems is estimated at 1869 bcm, and out of which only 1122 bcm can be used. About 690 bcm is surface water and 432 bcm is ground water. As compared to the world’s average annual rainfall of 1100 mm, India receives 1170 mm, which is highly erratic and uncertain in both time and space. Thus, in India, very limited fresh water is available for use because of competitive and conflicting demand from the agriculture, industry, power, and domestic sectors, which is expected to increase from 10.7% in 1990 to 22.5% in 2025. While that of agriculture will decrease from 89.3% in 1990 to 77.6% in 2025. The projected requirement of water for use by the different sectors shows an increase in energy and industry as compared to the domestic and irrigation sectors by 2025, indicating a growing scarcity of water availability in the future.

Organic products are grown under a system of agriculture without the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides with an environmentally and socially responsible approach. This is a method of farming that works at grass root level preserving the reproductive and regenerative capacity of the soil, good plant nutrition, and sound soil management, produces nutritious food rich in vitality which has resistance to diseases. India is bestowed with lot of potential to produce all varieties of organic products due to its various agro climatic conditions. In several parts of the country, the inherited tradition of organic farming is an added advantage. This holds promise for the organic producers to tap the market which is growing steadily in the domestic and export sector.

As per the available statistics, India’s rank 8th in terms of World’s Organic Agricultural land and 1st in terms of total number of producers as per 2020 data (Source: FIBL & IFOAM Year Book, 2020). The APEDA, Ministry of Commerce & Industries, Government of India is implementing the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP). The programme involves the accreditation of Certification Bodies, standards for organic production, promotion of organic farming and marketing etc. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by European Commission and Switzerland for unprocessed plant products as equivalent to their country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of NOP of US. With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by the importing countries. APEDA is also in the process of bilateral equivalence with South Korea, Taiwan, Canada, Japan etc.

The states in the Eastern India where pineapple is grown include West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. In between this states the ideal condition for pineapple is found in most parts of north Bengal and some north eastern districts of Bihar. West Bengal ranks first in production of pineapple in India (Figure 2).

West Bengal and Bihar

West Bengal ranks ninth in fruit production in India with a total production of 3850.5 thousand ton from 261.02 thousand hectare area (Table 1). Major fruit crops are mango, banana, pineapple, guava, litchi, jackfruit, mandarin, papaya and sapota. A large number of other fruit crops such as Jamun, bael, custard apple, ber, lime, lemon, plum, karonda, aonla, etc. are also grown in various parts of the state (Mitra, 2013). Pineapple is one of the important fruit crop of West Bengal covering an area of 11,410 ha with an average productivity of 30.24 t ha-1(Table 2). The state of West Bengal, having five distinct agro climatic zones, is ideally suited for growing several tropical and subtropical fruits. These agro-climatic zones are:

I. Hill zone II. Terai zone III. Alluvial zone IV. Laterite zone

V. Coastal zone In between these five agro-climatic zones commercially pineapple is grown mostly in Terai zone which is situated at the foot hills. High rainfall, light acidic soils and prolonged monsoon are characteristics of this zone. So the districts are Darjeeling, North Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri and some parts of Alipurduar. Besides terai zone other places where pineapple is grown in small scale or for experimental purpose are described below.

Pineapple botanically called Annanas comosus L. is basically believed to be native to Brazil and thereafter it spread to worldwide over many centuries from its centre of origin. It is a subtropical fruit crops requiring humid climatic conditions with slightly acidic soils for its favourable growth and development. In India it reached around 1548AD. The juicy fruits are good source of Vit-A, B and C along with micronutrient Calcium. A single unit of pineapple fruits is reported to contain moisture-85%, sugar-13per cent, protein-0.6%,mineral mater-0.05%, fibre 0.3%, Ca-0.02%, phosphorus- 0.01per cent iron- 0.09.0 acids- 0.6%, Vit-A (60IU/100g), riboflavin (120mg/100g) and Vitamin-C (63mg/100g). All parts of pineapple are utilizable from delicacy of fruit for table purpose to making fabric Pina in some country like Philippine. Indeed the dry waste after juice extraction can also be used as good feed for cattle. India is such a country blessed with diverse agro climatic zones and eight classification of agro-climatic zone has been officially classified for suitability of different fruit crops based on their climatic requirement. One of those classifications is North Eastern subtropical Humid Zones which comprises of eight states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Manipur is a land-locked state situated in the North Eastern Region of India. It is encircled by 9 hill ranges in all sides and has a small valley in the center (the capital Imphal is located in this valley). The State has 352 km long international border with Myanmar to the south-east and 502 km long border with the adjacent states of Nagaland on the North, Cachar district of Assam on the West and Chin Hills (Myanmar) and Mizoram on the South and the South-west and Surma Tract and upper Chindwin of Myanmar on the East. Manipur is next to Assam among NE states in respect of area of Pineapple cultivation. Owing to conducive soil and climate, Manipur is one of the major hubs for pineapple cultivation among the north east states where because of its popularity, it has surplus in area and production compare to other fruit crops in the state.

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is one of the most importanttropical fruit belonging to the family Bromeliaceae and is native to Brazil. It is cultivated in High rainfall and humid coastal regions of peninsular India and Hilly areas of North eastern states. In India, pineapple is commercially cultivated in the states like West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Bihar, Tripura, Kerala, Nagaland, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Meghalaya on large scale whereas on small scale in the states like Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh etc. It is popularly known as ‘Ananas’ in India and has lot of health benefits due to the presence of a proteolytic enzyme called bromelin, which is used to tenderize meat (Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 2011). It acts as antiamoebic, arbortifacient and also used in correction of stomach disorders (Leal and Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 1996). It is consumed both fresh and processed but mostly as fresh (70%) (Loeillet, 1997). Portuguese are the first people to introduce pineapple to India. The greenhouse cultivation of pineapple was first started in 1500s by Europeans, which led to the varieties like Smooth Cayenne and Queen and transported to all tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Collins, 1951). Due to its ease in transport of its propagules and high tolerance to drought, pineapple cultivation has spread worldwide. But due to its short shelf life, in temperate regions it is consumed more as processed food. The first commercial product made out of pineapple is jams and sweets (Thevet, 1957).

Bihar state is located in the Eastern part of the country and has a total geographical area of 94,763 Sq km which accounts for 2.85% of the country’s total land area. Out of the total geographical area, 57.12 lakh hectares is under cultivation, which accounts for 60.27% of the total geographical area. The Gross and net sown area in the state is 78.82 and 57.12 lakh ha, respectively and presently the cropping intensity is about 138%. Paddy, wheat, pulses, maize, potato and oilseeds are the major field crops of the state, while mango, litchi and banana are the major fruit crops. As the third-largest vegetable producer, the state accounts for eight percent of Indian vegetable basket. Among the livestock sector, cow and buffalo are the majorly dairy animals. Goatery and poultry are also practiced on a wide scale in the state. Agriculture and its allied sectors together account for about one third (33.00%) of the State’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This makes agriculture an important source of livelihood and a potential instrument for the attainment of inclusive, grassroots level and widespread developmental change.

Bihar State is characterized by its high population density, largely dependent on agriculture for livelihood. Its bountiful natural resources of fertile soil, abundant water and varied climatic conditions make Bihar an agriculturally high potential region. But, factors like fragmented and small landholdings, poor crop management practices, weaker market connectivity, lack of alternative sources of income, poor professional skills, absence of farm-level processing & value addition and poor investment possibilities in agriculture and allied sectors are resulting in widespread poverty among the rural masses of the state, which is more obvious among the scheduled tribe and scheduled caste population. There are around 1.47 crore landholdings in the State of which around 91.06 percent are marginal holdings of size less than 1 hectare (Agriculture Census, 2011). In addition to the above mentioned factors, lack of accessibility to productive resources and quality inputs, shortage of vocational skill development opportunities are the major contributory factors to the wide spread poverty in the state.

Introduction

The key to the advancement of women belong to poor background is self-help groups. Members of society with greater social influence are women. The World Bank estimates that women make up 48.0% of the population in India. Women in India are impacted by a number of economic and social variables. They are essential to any economy. Men and women must be viewed as equal participants in development if a nation is to achieve overall success and positive growth. The nation’s economic growth and social advancement depend on the independence of women. Through collective participation for growth, the empowerment of women through SHGs will benefit not just the individual women but also the family and network as a whole.

Self- Help Groups

Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have developed in order to assist underprivileged women in obtaining services and resources like loans. In 1985, the idea of SHG was first introduced in India. Self-help Groups (SHGs) are informal associations of people who come together to find ways to improve their living conditions. SHGs help in improve the lives of the poor and marginalised segments of society. They also foster financial inclusion. The self-help groups play an important role in ruler women life.India’s Self Help Group movement has emerged as the world’s largest network of community-based organizations.Under this programme, banks were allowed to open savings accounts for Self-Help Groups (SHGs). This was started in the early nineties. Empowering women is crucial to the prosperity and development of the country.