eChapters

2.1. Types of plant diseases

2.1.1. Types of infection

1. Localized diseases

Several environmental conditions affect the density and composition of the microflora and frequently alter their activities in soil. Primary factors include soil moisture, aeration, temperature, pH, organic matter and inorganic fertilizers. Lesser variables are the secondary factors, which include crop rotation, season, soil depth, cultivation practices etc.

I. Primary Factors

Soil moisture

Soil moisture is one of the important factors influencing the microbial population. Water is the major component of protoplasm; an adequate supply must be available for vegetative development of organisms. But, when it becomes excessive, proliferation is suppressed due to limitation in gaseous exchange and lowers the availability of O₂ supply creating an anaerobic environment. Most of the organisms prefer a moisture percentage between 20 and 60 per cent. Many bacteria and fungi can adjust themselves to different moisture conditions. Under dry conditions, the bacteria may form spores that can resist the drought conditions. The fungi may sporulate or form chlamydospores to tide over adverse conditions. The protozoans also may form cysts and can survive under dry conditions. Actinobacteria are the chief group of organisms that prefer dry conditions. It is believed that the concentration of nutrients is diluted and also the aeration is very much limited at moisture and hence only the anaerobic and microaerophilic organisms can develop better.

The gall bladder is a small/pear shaped, muscular organ closely attached to the under surface of the liver. Its only function is to store and concentrate the bile between meals so there will be a plentiful supply when needed. Bile from the liver is a clear, golden colour when formed, but after being concentrated in the gall bladder it turns a deep green. This concentrating process sometimes results in the formation of stones in the gall bladder, particularly following pregnancy in commonly over weight women. Many people with gallstones seem to have no problem at all, especially if there is one large stone. But when a number of smaller stones are present in the gall bladder, the patient may feel sharp, cramp like pains all over the upper abdomen.

The predisposing causes are stagnation of bile, due to an excessive diet of starch and fat, constipation, obesity, pregnancy, tight lacing or other obstruction to the flow of bile.

The exciting causes are catarrhal and infective inflammation of the gall bladder, like sepsis, typhoid etc., and tumors. Old patients and women are most susceptible.

Product Characteristics and Packaging Requirements:

The key raw materials for sugar confectionery are sugar (60 - 65%), glucose, citric acid and flavoured essences. Confectionery is hygroscopic in nature and requires protection against the ingress of moisture, and exposure to high temperature (as far as possible).

A candy or confectionery product may be adversely affected by many things. Hard candy, brittles and crunch products are most sensitive to moisture and absorb water vapour fairly rapidly from the atmosphere. Various gums are less sensitive while some creams tend to lose moisture considerably.

Introduction

The West Indian Cherry is a very important fruit because of its high ascorbic acid content (10-33g/kg edible pulp). It is widely distributed throughout tropical America, Africa and the West Indies. It is also called Acerola, Cereza in Puerto Rico, Barbados cherry in Florida and Texas. Leading producer’s countries of cherry are Turkey, USA, Chile, Uzbekistan and Iran. The plant is ornamental and when laden with clusters of its crimson fruits, presents a very attractive appearance. It is a medium-sized shrub and can serve as an ornamental tree on account of its fruits, flowers, foliage and drooping branches. Eating one or two fruits every morning will meet the daily requirement of vitamin C. This is a small shrub or small-sized tree growing up to 8.0 m in height and doing well in a tropical climate. The flowering seasons are May and November.

Materials Required

Sensory scoring card, products, pen/ pencil for coding, plain water.

Procedure

    1.    Assign codes to the samples i.e. a, b, c, …… or 1, 2, 3, ….. etc.
    2.    Keep the coded samples randomly (eg. c, f, a, b, d, e) in a row for evaluation
    3.    Start the evaluation of samples one by one. 
    4.    Evaluator should rank the samples on the basis of intensity of a single sensory attribute according to his / her preference.
    5.    Compute the means on the basis of the evaluation of different evaluators (replications).
    6.    List the samples in increasing or decreasing order of preference.

Introduction
Demand of dairy products is on the rise in India. India‘s demand forecast for milk and milk products is more than the current supply of these products. To meet this demand entrepreneurship initiatives are need of the hour. Further, younger generations of India are more interested in commercial dairy farming rather than subsistence based farming. Therefore, scientific as well as commercial dairy entrepreneurial training to farmers about advanced technology used in breeding, feeding, housing and healthcare is essential.

a. Barriers for Entrepreneurship in dairy

An average dairy entrepreneur faces several barriers to start a new enterprise. Some of them are as under

    1.    Lack of financial support: A major stumbling block for many dairy farmers to expand production or diversify into new high value enterprises is lack of access to finance. Farmers who are starting new enterprises often face difficulty raising investment capital.

ABSTRACT

The antagonistic organisms are known to bring out action on the pathogen by various mechanisms. Based on in vitro screening of epiphytic microbes from cocoa pod surface against Phytophthora palmivora, the incitant of pod rot of cocoa, a promising isolate of Trichoderma viride and two isolates of Pseudomonas fluorescens were selected. The mechanisms of antagonistic action of these selected epiphytic antagonists against P. palmivora were studied in comparison with the standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens. The selected epiphytic fungal antagonist T. viride and standard culture of T. harzianum were found to be efficient parasites of P. palmivora. The hyphae of the pathogen were seen tightly held by coiling with hyphae of the fungal antagonists. The hyphae of the antagonists penetrated the host hyphae at several points and grew to its inner cavity. The fungal antagonists also caused disintegration of the pathogen hyphae, besides free intermingling, which resulted in malformation of host hyphae. The ability of the two epiphytic P. fluorescens isolates and standard culture of P. fluorescens in producing HCN and siderophores was assessed. It was found that these isolates produced HCN and siderophores in appreciable levels thereby suppressing the P. palmivora. Though, more than one mechanism may operate in suppressing the pathogen, the relative importance of a particular mechanism may vary with different conditions, which needed to be further investigated.

INTRODUCTION

Digital divide is the gap in opportunities experienced by those with listed accessibility to technology especially, the Internet. This digital divide can be bridged by facility access to scholarly e-resources to the people of developing and undeveloped countries. Apart from the fact that most of the print journals are expensive and there is steep rise in the subscription price of journals and databases, financial constraint because of static/shrinking budget available to higher educational institutions have forced the libraries to cut their subscription drastically.

ELECTRONIC SUBSCRIPTION OF JOURNALS

With globalization of education and competitive research, demand for journals has increased over the years. Due to insufficient funds libraries have been forced to cut subscriptions of journals which has titled them towards the internet to cover the gap between demand and supply by way of e-journals that can be subscribed online. Most of the journals are available in electronic form. These journals are available over UGC INFONET to all the universities, thereby quality information is made accessible to the academic scholar-base speedily across the country, at an affordable price.

Gastric Ulcer a well defined ulcer involving the mucous membrane of the stomach with a tendency to progressive destruction, beginning in the mucosa and sometimes extending to and even through the deeper layers of the walls of the stomach.

We have not been able to name a definite cause. "Altered composition of the blood and the resulting insufficient nourishment of the cells'⁷. Riegel says the ulcer is due "to a self-digestion of the stomach at the limited spot." He calls attention to the fact that the gastric juice is always hyperacid in these cases and thinks it is more than a mere coincidence. Virchow says the cause is emboli or thrombi, which form in the nutrient gastric arteries, which have lost their tonicity. He claims that an ulcer forms at the point of obstruction.

Gastric ulcers occur most frequently between twenty and thirty years of age. This is an average, which we arrive at from the fact that in females it is from fifteen to thirty and in males from forty to forty-five. The predominance of women over men as shown by clinical statistics is two to one, but pathologically the numbers are about equal in two sexes.

No occupation seems to grant exemption. Cooks seems to be more predisposed. Next come metal workers in those factories where there is much dust. Some claim that shoemakers and tailors are also prone to the condition.

The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) aims at providing practical options to the farmers in improving the productivity of land, water and labour, all at the same time. SSI is also expected to reduce the overall pressure on water resources and contribute to the recovery of ecosystems. Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative is an innovative method of sugarcane production using less seeds, less water and optimum utilization of fertilizers and land to achieve more yields.

Definition

IDD (immunodeficiency diseases) occur when there is a failure of the immune system to protect the host from infectious organisms or the development of cancer.

IDD are disorders of immune system that result in immunological deficiency. Immunodeficiency could be from defects in

i. B and T- lymphocytes

ii. Granulocytes

iii. Complement

15.1 Silkworm Bed Cleaning
Bed cleaning is an important silkworm rearing process to ensure the hygiene in the immediate vicinity of silkworms in order to protect from disease infection and to ensure them good feeding appetite. Hence, timely bed cleaning is critical to maintain the worm
In a study observation on larval mortality, larval period, single cocoon weight, shell weight, length of silk thread and silk ratio were carefully noted for each treatment and replication. Three replications were used for each treatment of different eri silkworm races. Treatments were once bed cleaning frequency per day, twice bed cleaning frequency per day, and three times bed cleaning frequency per instar of Vietnamese eri-silkworm races, Indian eri silkworm races, Kenyan bivoltine silkworm races, Korean bivoltine silkworm races, and Vietnamese multivoltine silkworm races. Long spinning silk thread, robust silk cocoon and shell weight and higher percentage of silk ratio of silkworm races were registered from one time bed cleaning frequency per day and two times bed cleaning frequency per day. The rearing tray of silkworms accumulates some unconsumed leaves after each feeding, exuviae after moulting, excreta, dead or diseased larvae, etc. All these if not cleaned, combine to form a thick and damp litter which promotes the growth of different micro-organisms, generation of heat and injurious gases and depletion of oxygen. Hence, it is very necessary to remove the litter periodically and the process of its removal is called bed cleaning.

7.1. Introduction
The concept of consumer’s surplus was first introduced by Alfred Marshall. When a consumer plans to buy a commodity, they assess the utility they will gain from its consumption. A rational consumer always compares the utility derived from a good with the price they must pay for it. If the utility exceeds the price, the consumer chooses to buy it; otherwise, they do not. The excess utility gained over the price paid is known as consumer’s surplus.
In nutshell, Consumer’s surplus is the difference between the amount a
consumer is willing to pay for a good and the amount they actually pay.
Consumer’s surplus = Price that a consumer is willing to pay - Price he actual pays
Suppose a consumer wants to buy a shirt and is willing to pay `250 for it, but the actual price is only `200. In this case, the consumer gains a surplus of `50. This difference, known as consumer’s surplus, represents the extra benefit the consumer receives from the purchase.
Consumer’s surplus is often experienced with commodities that are highly useful but relatively inexpensive, such as newspapers, salt, matchboxes, and postage stamps. In these cases, consumers are willing to pay more than the actual price, resulting in a surplus of utility

A detailed treatment on the concepts of mutagenic effectiveness and efficiency was given by Konzak et al. (1965). They proposed the term “effectiveness” as a measure of gene mutations in relation to the dose and “efficiency” as an estimate of the mutation rate in relation to other biological effects induced, such as lethality, injury or sterility. To obtain high efficiency, the mutagenic effect must greatly surpass other effects in the cell, such as chromosomal aberrations, and toxic effects which generally lead to damage

ABSTRACT

India is a developing country and agriculture is at the core of this development. Youth participation in agriculture for its sustained contribution to a nation’s development is crucial but this is not ascertained. FAO has declared year 2014 as the International Year of Family Farming (IYFF). Today’s youth are tomorrow’s family farmers, and maintaining interest in farming as a profession is vital to future food security. The number of young people of working age is increasing while the same group is typically rejecting careers in agriculture and food system. This scenario can be changed by cultivating the next generation of agricultural leaders—not just as farmers but as food entrepreneurs, scientists, agronomists, extension agents, union and government leaders etc. Governments, particularly in developing countries, need to invest in policies and practices that provide access to land, credit and banking services, education and knowledge, and technical skills for young farmers. And these governments need to ensure that young people have access to markets, goods and service, employment opportunities, and leisure so that they prefer to stay on the farm.

Introduction

Pomegranate is emerging as one of the important fruit crops owing to its hardiness and ability to withstand adverse soil and climatic conditions. Today out of world production of ten Lakh tons; India contributes 40-45 percent. Currently the export of pomegranate is around 10,000 tones, which is just 5 percent of the total export. With the increase in population the domestic demand of fruits has also increased substantially. As on date out of total area of 1,25,000 ha. area, under pomegranate major area under the crop is found in the state of Maharashtra. The state has 85,000 ha. (68 % area) under the crop, of which only 51,000 ha is under production, followed by Karnataka 12,727 ha. Gujarat 3,787 ha. up to 2003 –2004.

Materials Required

Record book

Procedure

    1.    Follow the instructions given by the teacher and the factory representative.
    2.    Listen carefully to the explanations of the factory representative
    3.    Observe the functioning of various equipments
    4.    Ask queries wherever not understood properly.
    5.    Note down the observations in your record book  

Observations

    1.    Name and address of the factory or processing unit
    2.    Size of the Unit (Large, Small, Cottage, Home)
    3.    FPO Licence No.    
    4.    List of products manufactured    
    5.    Height of the processing plant    
    6.    Information regarding raw material store, finished product storage    
    7.    List of equipments installed in the factory
    8.    Water supply system     
    9.    Waste disposal system    
    10.    Hygiene in the surroundings    
    11.    Any other

Validity : The degree to which a measurement actually measures or detects what it is supposed to measure.

Value added : This usually refers to firms, where it is defined as the value of the firm’s output minus the value of all its inputs purchased from other firms. It is therefore a measure of the profit earned by a particular firm plus the wages it has paid. As a rule, the more value a firm can add to a product, the more successful it will be. In many countries, the main form of indirect indirect taxation is value-added tax, which is levied on the value created at each stage of production. However, it is paid, ultimately, by whoever consumes the finished product. Another definition of value added refers to the change in the overall economic value of a company. This takes into account changes in the combined value of its shares, assets, debt and other liabilities. Part of the pay of company bosses is often linked to how much economic value is added to the company under their management.

Value at risk : Value at risk models, widely used for risk management by banks and other financial institutions, use complex computer algorithms to calculate the maximum that the institution could lose in a single day’s trading. These models seem to work well in normal conditions but not, alas, during financial crises, which is arguably when it is most necessary to know how much value is at risk.

Food safety scientifically describes various methods of handling, preparation and storage of food to prevent any foodborne illnesses. However, it is important to check the safety between industry, market and the consumer. From the food industry to the market the practices relating to food labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues are important to be looked into and the policies on biotechnology. The governmental imports and exports needs to be given proper guidelines. Certification systems and Inspection for foods need to be installed which should be clean and corruption free. When all this is properly considered the food could be safe in the market. This may allow for safe delivery and safe preparation of the food for the consumers. Many diseases are transmitted by food which serves as a growth medium for bacteria and cause food poisoning. In the developed countries it has been observed that there are many intricate standards for food preparation. However, in the developing countries the availability of adequate safe water itself is a question. It is possible to prevent food poisoning to 100%. An ordinance and code regulation in US (1943)was given.