eChapters

DNA can be easily isolated and purified after size selection on an agarose gel. The fragment of interest is simply cut out of the gel with a razor blade and purified by a number of different methods.The easiest is to use a method that involves first dissolving the agarose slice in a solution at 50°C, then binding the DNA from the melted agarose to a silica-gel membrane.

Principle

In this method following gel electrophoresis using low gelling/ melting temperature agarose, the band of interest is removed from the gel. The agarose slice is then melted and subjected to phenol extraction.

The synthesis of humic substances is the least understood and the most intriguing aspect of humus chemistry. Studies on this subject are of enduring and continued research. Several pathways have been identified for the formation of humic substances during the decay of plant and animal remains in soil, the main ones being shown in Fig. 26.1.

All organisms require the six elements CHNOPS in sizable quantities, and that these minerals may occur in different forms. Depending on whether the local environment is aerobic or anaerobic, the exact chemical form of any of these elements may change quickly and drastically. Example: : If the soil becomes waterlogged and anaerobic, sulfate will be converted into hydrogen sulfide and nitrate into nitrogen gas or ammonia (via anaerobic respiration). As the water recedes and the soil becomes aerobic again, the ammonia is oxidized back to nitrate in stages. All of this (and many other processes) occur largely because of the activities of soil microbes. Without these microbes, life as we know it would not occur because necessary elements would remain tied up in unusable chemical forms and gradually be removed by sedimentation. To maintain the level of these components it is essential that they undergo a regular process of recycling. Different microorganisms bring about this process of recycling through various transformations.

Carbon Cycle

The most important element in the biological realm and substance that serve as the cornerstone of the cell structure is carbon. It constituents about 40-50% of all living organisms, yet the ultimate source is the CO₂ that exists in a perennially short supply, only 0.03% of the earth’s atmosphere, which undergoes a cyclic change from an oxidized to reduced state. The concentration of carbon in living matter (18%) is almost 100 times greater than its concentration in the earth (0.19%). Hence, living things extract carbon from their non-living environment. For life to continue, this carbon must be recycled. Carbon exists in the nonliving environment as carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere and dissolved in water (forming HCO₃") carbonate rocks (limestone and coral = CaCO₃) deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas derived from once-living things dead organic matter, e.g., humus in the soil. Carbon enters the biotic world through the action of autotrophs: primarily photoautotrophs, like plants and algae, that use the energy of light to convert carbon dioxide to organic matter through photosynthesis and to a small extent, chemoautotrophs - bacteria and Archaeans that do the same but use the energy derived from the oxidation of molecules in their substrate.

Cholesterol is present in the diet of all people, and it can be absorbed slowly from the gastrointestinal tract into the intestinal lymph. It is highly fat soluble but only slightly soluble in water and is capable of forming esters with fatty acids.

1 In emergency medicine, first aid measures do not include examination of

a) Airway b) Breathing

c) Circulation d) Blood Pressure

Introduction

An herb known as priyal is a drug of the Ayurveda and the Unani system of medicine. It is known to have tonic, cardiotonic, and astringent properties and is also used in the treatment of skin diseases. It is commonly known as Chironji. It is a commercially useful tropical plant. The Chironji tree is a medium-sized evergreen deciduous tree, growing 50 ft tall. It bears fruits, each containing a single seed, which is a popular edible nut, known as chironji. It is common in India, mostly in eroded land. This tree is distributed in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and also commonly found in Uttar Pradesh.

Biomimetics is defined as the study of the formation, structure, or function of biologically produced substances and materials and biological mechanisms and processes especially to synthesize similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimic natural ones.

Biomimetic materials and molecules have been applied in many of the potential research areas in medical and dental sciences and highlight their foundation from plants, animals, or microbes that can be used to treat human disease.

A bioactive/biomimetic material and biocompatible material is an artificial or natural material used to change part of the living system or to function in internal contact with living tissue. Bioactive materials can interact with living tissues or systems.

There are several types of biomimetic materials like

Osteogenic Materials

Osteoconductive Materials

Dermatophylaceae is a group of bacteria with mycelial filaments which divide transversely and in at least two longitudinal planes to form masses of coccoid or cuboidal cells, which characteristically become motile. They are gram positive, non acid fast, aerobic and produce aerial mycelium when their growths are stimulated by 10% CO2. Dermatophilus congolensis, Dermatophilus  dermatonomus and Dermatophilus pedis are the pathogens causing variety of skin lesions in mammals, including man. Dermatophilus congolensis causes very severe clinical disease and its infection is most common in tropical and subtropical regions.
Diseases caused by Dermatophilus species
Dermatophilus congolensis mainly affects Cattle, horses, sheep and goats, but many animal species and man can be infected.The disease has many names;
Cattle : Streptothricosis or Dermatophilosis
Horse : Skin Funk (Rain Rot, Rain Scald, Dew Poisoning), Grease heal
Sheep: Mycotic dermatitis (general infection), lumpy wool (wool- covered skin) and strawberry foot rot (skin of lower leg and coronet
Natural Habitat
Dermatophilus congolensis is the only species in the genus is thought to maintain itself in small foci of infection on a carrier animal or within scab particles in dust. It can survive in scab material for period’s upto 3 years.
History
Bovine disease was first described by Van Saceghem in 1915 in the Congo now known as Zaire in Africa.

10.1. Introduction
In the production process, the farmers combine the required input factor in various proportion. This type of usage of input by the farmer gives way for the operation of law of returns. In the production process, when the single input factor is varied keeping other required factor constant, the relationship take place between single variable input and the consequent output pertain to either one or a combination of the following relationship.
1. Law of increasing returns;
2. Law of constant returns; and
3. Law of decreasing returns.
10.1.1. Law of increasing returns
According to the law of increasing returns, each additional (or marginal) unit of input leads to a proportionally larger increase in output compared to the previous unit. In other words, the productivity of inputs rises as more units are employed.

Polygenic characters exhibit a wide range of expression but the action of genes may be either additive or non-additive. According to Fisher et al. (1932), Smith (1936) Lush (1945), Panse (1946) and Mather (1949) the genetic advance can be achieved through selection of the heritable variation in only due to additive. So, selection for a particular character based on phenotypic variability without estimating the heritable part of it will not be successful. Heritability estimates along with genetic advance are normally more helpful in predicting the gain under selection than heritability estimates alone (Singh, 1997). Therefore, the heritability enters into every formula connected with breeding methods and many practical decisions are taken considering the heritability value.

Dog Feeding

In Asia, dogs are the main pet animal kept both by urban and rural families. They are very versatile and adopt to common food habbits of their masters. Most often, they are fed on the home cooked foods – bread, rice, vegetables, pulses, milk and non – vegetarian meals. Many processed pet foods are also available in the market in the form of “Dry biscuits” or in “Canned form”, which provide all the requirements for Energy, Protein, Vitamins, Minerals and some moisture. Like any other farm animal, dogs also require these nutrients for their maintenance and productive purposes like – Growth, Lactation, Gestation, draft [sledge – cart on the ice] etcetra. Dogs and humans have been companions from time immemorial and the first readymade dog food was marketed under the name - DOG CHOW CHEKER in the year 1926. Since then such dog – foods have gained popularity. Most of the dog foods are manufactured abroad and marketed in India by Multi – National Companies (MNCs). Following are the guide – lines for feeding :

1. Energysources: Cereal grains - Jowar, Bajra, Oat, Maize, Sorghum.Average requirement of energy 3000 k.cal / kg of feed.

2. Protein sources: Vegetative origin : verypoor in Essential Amino acids. e.g. Soybean, grams, peas [green proteins], beans, other legumes.

3. Fat: 10 % (oil seeds are good sources Protein as well as Fats).

4. Non – starch fibrous feeds (5 %): To tone – up Alimentary canal.

5. Feedsupplements:Additional nutrients:Greenvegetables (carotenoids), fruits, skimmed milk, curd, butter – milk.

6. Feed Additives: These are Non-nutrients: Mushroom, herbal preparations [no side effects by Aanwala, Aloe-veera].

The peach tree (Prunus persica L.) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit called a peach. It is a deciduous tree growing to 4–10 m (13–33 ft) tall, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It is classified with the almond in the subgenus Amygdalus within the genus Prunus, distinguished from the other sub genera by the corrugated seed shell. Among the temperate fruit’s peaches require relatively less chilling temperature. Now peach is a commercial crop in Argentina, Austria, Canada, Chile, Europe, USA, China, India and Japan. In India, it grown in hills of Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

Cultivars/Varieties: Sun Red, Red, Nectarine, Kateroo, Flordasun, Florda gold, Sharbati, Maygold, Kanto-5, Stark Early Flame, Summerset, Early White Giant, Redglobe, Alexander, First Gold, Early Gold and Sweet Gold.

Uses

Peachs are grown both for dessert and processing purposes. It is also used for making wine. Peach fruit juice is a common drink. Peach kernel has high protein and its oil is used in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. The cake after extraction of oil can be used for various purposes. Peach flowers and leaves are anthelmintic and purgative.

Many thousands of people today are heavy smokers, not by choice, but because they have found no way of escape. They are caught in the grip of a habit developed during their teen-age years when so many young people think it is 'smart' to smoke.

The strange thing is that most of these people never wanted to smoke in the first place. There was only doing what they thought everyone else was doing at the time. Yet there is another odd thing. Smoking in not a normal habit. A person has to learn to smoke.

Smoking is by and large, an acquired habit. People start smoking because they think it is fashionable to do so or because their friends and companions are able to persuade them to start smoking. Some smokers feel that they look more attractive to the opposite sex when they are smoking. Others hold that a social gathering becomes more intimate if people are smoking. In reality all this is a product of smokers imagination. Because he wants to justify his habit, he invents enough reasons for it.

1 Many of active ingredients in chemically manmade drugs are derived from plant components

a) Pyrethroids b) Organophosphorous

c) Carbamate d) Organochlorine

The word ‘horticulture’ was first conceived by Peter Laurinburg. In an English language, the word horticulture used for the first time in 1678 in a book entitled “New World of Words” by Phillips. The term HORTICULTURE is resultant of two Latin words i.e. HORTUS meaning GARDEN and CULTURA meaning CULTIVATION.

The Latin term ‘Garden’ meaning to enclose. In past, the garden had protection with with walls or other similar structures. Such protected places were used to grow fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. When fruits are grown in a definite area, that area is called as an ‘orchard’. Thus, horticulture refers to cultivation of garden plants in protected enclosures. It is an aesthetic science deals with the garden crops. Such as growing of vegetable crops in vegetable gardens; fruit crops in fruit gardens. The most distinguished character between horticulture and agriculture is that horticulture deals with small scale gardening and usually in enclosed gardens although this is not a necessity, while agriculture is done on large scale with extensive crop cultivation.

Integrated Farming System is a traditional concept in agriculture in which we are trying integrate various agriculture farming and its allied enterprises suitably for efficient use of single and multiple production function. In simple sense, it is a way integrating crop farming with livestock and poultry farming, fish farming, bee keeping and other agriculture technologies to enhance the value chain of farming system.

The core idea ofintegration is harvesting the complementary and supplementary relationship functions of various enterprises effectively and the art of using the waste of one enterprise to be the input of other enterprise. It is a efficient farming tool for small and marginal farmers to optimize the output per unit of land and investment. Moreover, it is more of organic, eco and soil friendly in nature.

The frequency distribution of the populations of M₂ and M₃ generation for each genotype was extracted according to Panse and Sukhatme (1961). Skewness and Kurtosis for all the characters were calculated as per the standard method. Skewness refers to the symmetry of the frequency distribution. A measure of skewness is obtained as making use of the second and their moments about the mean. It is defined as,

Feeding wild animals in captivity presents a fearful challenge. There arehundreds of species to consider, each representing millions of years of evolutionary adaptation to particular ecological system.

Natural foods range from Ants to Antelopes. (Antelope = African (deer like) ruminant, forexample-gazelles, gnus, kudus and impala) and Mouth structures varyfromEdentate (toothless)toCarnassial(specialized pre-molars and molars).

Stomach : These may be

a) Single

b) Quadruple.

Intestines: These may be

a) Tube likeor

b) Equipped with a caecal fermentation vat (vat = large vessel).

On the surface, the problem appears unsolvable, … it certainly is not easy. But the need persists to nourish all captive species as appropriately as possible … it is not feasible to wait until a DATABASE is developed comparable with that which exists for domestic animals.Actually domestic animal data can be very useful for the estimation of nutrient needs of wild counterparts.

The pear or naspati (Pyrus spp) is a popular temperature fruit next to apples. It ranks high among sub-acid fruits as it contains less acid than almost any other fruit. Pear belongs to the genus Pyrus under the family Rosaceae and sub- family Pomoideae. The European pear (Pyrus communis) with a persistent calyx, fleshy pedicels and pyriform shape is different from Pyrus pyrifolia or Pyrus serotina (Asiatic pears) and are non-fleshy pedicels with apple shape.

It has been used as a food from time immemorial. The pear is a wholesome fruit and at par in importance with the apple. The flesh of the pear is, however, slightly harder than the apple, but it is juicier than the apple. Like the apple, it has few seeds. It grows on a comparatively large tree. It has generally yellow and brown colour. Sometimes, there is also a tint of red. It has several several varieties across the world.

It originated in mountainous reach of western China. The major pear producing countries are Italy, USA, Japan, Spain, France, Germany, Turkey and Australia. In India, it is mainly grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hills of Uttar Pradesh.

Cultivars: In India, Bartlett is widely grown in Kashmir. Kieffer, a cross between Pyrus communis and Pyrus pyrifolia, is popular in South India. In Punjab, the popular varieties ar Patharnakh, Le Conte, Smith and Kieffer.

It is a contagious, infectious disease. It is of short duration usually sporadic, characterized by malaise, headache, severe pain in the body and catarrh of the respiratory passage.

Metrological conditions are predisposing causes. The bacillus of Pfeiffer is generally acknowledged to be the exciting cause. The bacilli enter the system through respiratory organs.

The disease is highly infectious. Incubation period is 1 or 2 days and one attack does not give any immunity, rather increases the susceptibility.

There is much discrepancy and disagreement among over authorities on the question. In a case of simple uncomplicated flu, but find no characteristic anatomical lesions other than congestion and catarrhal secretions of the mucous membranes of the respiratory and alimentary systems. Death is usually caused by some complication and post-mortems show all the changes found in the complicating diseases.