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Plants grow in the open in nature, hence are subjected to biotic and abiotic stress.

Biotic stress is due to living components such as:

Insects and pests

Nematodes, mites, snails, slugs etc.

Vertebrates like rats, birds, jackal, bats etc.

The plant experiences biotic stress when root, stem, bark, shoots, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits are damaged by the influence and activity of biotic factors.

Biotic factors Diseases

Like the pests, diseases also cause stress to plants. Diseases are caused by fungus, bacteria and virus. Sometimes the exposed part of insect eaten plant part becomes the entry pathway for fungus, bacteria and virus.

Both dryland crops and irrigated crops experience an assortment of ecological or environmental stresses which include abiotic viz., drought, water logging, salinity, extremes of temperature, changes in atmospheric gases and biotic viz., insects, birds, other pests, weeds, pathogens. Dryland crops are more vulnerable to stress in the present context of changing climatic scenarios. The ability to tolerate or adapt effectively by challenging these stresses is a very complicated phenomenon would be due to various plant interactions occurred in the specific environment. Both biotic and abiotic stresses occur at various stages of plant growth and development and frequently more than one stress concomitantly affects the crop. It is difficult to distinguish effects of these stress factors on the performance of crop plants with respect to yield and quality of harvested products. This is of special significance of maximizing productivity of dryland crops in changing climate scenarios, with complex consequences for ecologically and environmentally sound Indian agriculture. In order to successfully meet this challenge, one should understand the various aspects of stresses in view of the current development and to promote a competitive dryland production system.

Stress and depression can ruin your life and affect your health. Seeking support, being realistic and planning ahead can help ward off stress and depression.

For some people, the holidays bring unwelcome guests — stress and depression. And it's no wonder. In an effort to pull off a perfect Hallmark holiday, you might find yourself facing a dizzying array of demands — work, parties, shopping, baking, cleaning, caring for kids on school break or elderly parents, and scores of other chores. So much for peace and joy, right?

Holiday stress and depression are often the result of three main trigger points. Understanding these trigger points can help you plan ahead on how to accommodate them.

Here are the three issues that commonly trigger holiday stress or depression:

5.1 String Statement

String in python is stored as individual characters i.e. indexed wise. The index by default starts with 0.

So, here P will be represented by str[0] or str[-6], y will be represented by str[1] or str[-5]

Note: strings are immutable and hence you cannot change the individual letters of string using assignment operator.

Example:

name=“shyam”

Name[0]=“A”

Result error

Q.1 Let there be two factors A and B with p and q levels respectively which are applied to the larger strip by dividing the experimental material into p rows and q columns. The factors A and B are applied at random to these rows and columns respectively. Such a layout is known as strip plot design.

Strobilanthes (of Acanthaceae) is a morphologically diverse and species rich genus extensively distributed in South and Southeast Asia (Carine,1997 and Moylan et al 2004). Approximately 74 species are found along the Western Ghats of Southern India - Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot (Carine, 1997). The mass flowering of Strobilanthes with blue coloured flower makes them promising plants for gardens.  The genus is subjected to several systematic revisions recently (Bennett and Scotland 2003, Carine et al. 2000, 2004 Carine and Scotland 1998, 2000, 2002 and Venu 2007). The most distinguishing character of the genera (Strobilanthes) is its monocarpic nature, i.e., flowers after a long period of vegetative growth ranging 1-15 years and in a few cases flowers after 35 years. Bremekamp (1944) used the term ‘plietesials’ for such monocarpic plants that take several years to reach maturity before flowering.

Strobilurins are a group of chemical compounds used in agriculture as fungicides. They are part of the larger group of QoI inhibitors, which act to inhibit the respiratory chain at the level of Complex III.Some common Strobilurins are azoxystrobin, kresoxim-methyl, picoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin,oryzastrobin, dimoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin. Strobilurins represented a major development in fungus-based fungicides. They were extracted from the fungus Strobilurus tenacellus. They have a suppressive effect on other fungi, reducing competition for nutrients; theyinhibit electron transfer inmitochondria,disrupting energy metabolism and preventing growth of the target fungi. Strobilurins are miracle fungicides ever developed with novel mode of action & mobility that qualifies the Unique New Generation Fungicides controlling Pathogen from diverse class.

Strobilurins are a group of compounds used as fungicides in agriculture. They belong to the larger group of QoI inhibitors that inhibit the respiratory chain at the complex III level.Common strobilurins include azoxystrobin, cresoxime methyl, picoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, oryzastrobin, dimoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, and trifloxystrobin.Strobilurin represents an important development of fungal-based fungicides and is derived from the fungus Strobilurus tenacellus.They have an inhibitory effect on other fungi and reduce nutrient competition.They inhibit mitochondrial electron transport, disrupt energy metabolism, and prevent target fungal growth. Strobilurin is the wonder fungicide ever developed with a new MOA and mobility that qualify it as a unique new generation of fungicides controlling different classes of pathogens.

All agroforestry systems are characterized by three basic sets of attributes; productivity, sustainability, and adoptability (Nair, 2008).

Productivity: The majority of agroforestry systems, if not all of them, strive to maintain or raise both land productivity and output (of desired commodities). In several aspects, agroforestry may raise production. These include higher yields of related crops, less input use in the cropping system, enhanced labour efficiency, and higher production of tree products.

Sustainability: Agroforestry can achieve and indefinitely maintain conservation and fertility goals by conserving the production potential of the resource base, mainly through the beneficial effects of woody perennials on soils.

Adoptability: Improved or new agroforestry technologies that are introduced into new areas should fit the social as well as environmental characteristics of the land use system for which it is designed and should also confirm to local farming system.

Introduction

According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI) “all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10% is defined as Forest” (FSI 2009). The status of forests and forest management systems contribute to the vulnerability of forests to climate change. Indian forests are extremely diverse and heterogeneous. Forests and Climate Change are intimately intertwined. Forests have regulated the climate, rain, groundwater, soil of the earth over millennia. Their transpiration act as a regulator of the balance of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide: the world’s forests and forest soils currently store more than one trillion tons of carbon – twice the amount found floating free in the atmosphere. The forest and soils are home of biological diversity.

7.1 Introduction

The earth's crust is made up of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Each variety of rocks exhibit some columnar joints in Igneous rock, characteristic structures like bedding in sedimentary rocks and fabrics like schistosity and gneissosity in metamorphic rocks.

As a result of tectonic activities in nature, rocks may suffer deformation, rupture, dislocation of beds (Fault) or other planar structures.. The whole study of such deformation is known as structural Geology. It has been observed that sedimentary rocks are most suitable for studying structures, because these rocks are deposited in quiet environment, and initially the beds arranged in horizontal position. As a result of stress due to kinematic movements/tectonism, the horizontal beds tend to deviate from their horizontal disposition to dipping position or get folded or faulted. Thus the rock develops various kinds of structures. There are following structures present in sedimentary rocks:

27. STRIKE AND DIP

Outcrop : A part of the rock formation which crops out or exposed on the surface of the earth is called an outcrop.

The total area over which a particular rock unit occurs at the surface whether visibly exposed or not. The term outcrop is especially used for delination of such an area on a geological map.

Attitude : To study these outcrops their attitude help in better understanding the position of the bed on the ground surface or in field is attitude of a bed can be described with the help of two basic structural elements i.e. strike and dip.

Application of the principal of geomorphology provides information, which will be of value in predicating the geometry of aquifers. On weathering and erosion, many geological formations develop landforms that are distinctive in respect of slope continuity of outcrops and symmetry of valley flanks. The surface topographic features of bedrocks can some times be extrapolated to reasonable depths to predict the thickness of alluvium or aeolian sands occurring as valley fill deposits, by treating slope profile as mathematical curves for which equations similar to regression equations can be found (Doornkamp and King, 1971).

The influence of tectonic movements and resultant structural features on landform is of paramount importance for hydrogeomorphologists. The control of structure on landforms and hydrogeological processes are being discussed here. The structural geology concerns with the features such as uniclinal or inclined beds, folds, faults and joints. Of these the structural features like faults, fractures, joints etc appear as linear feature.

Linear features on the surface of the earth have attracted the attention of geologists for over one hundred years. This interest has grown most rapidly since the introduction of aerial photographs into geological studies. Geologists have recently proven that various structural features perceived in remotely sensed images are reliable indicators of geologic resources (Caran et al, 1982). These structures have been used in many applications: petroleum and mineral exploration (Blanchet, 1957); nuclear energy facility siting (Seay, 1979); geothermal assessments (Woodruff et al, 1982); and water resource investigations (Lattman and Parizek, 1964). Lattman and Parizek (1964) established a relationship between the occurrence of groundwater and fracture traces for carbonate aquifers, and in particular zones of localized weathering and increased permeability and porosity underlying these structures.

Introduction

Bundelkhand is an important region of Central India which is often called as heartland of the nation. It is spread in the geographical area of 7.08 mha, includes 14 districts seven, each of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and supports 1.84 crore (as per 2011 census) of socio-economically and culturally diverse population. The present region of Bundelkhand lies between approximately 23°10’ and 26°27’ (north) latitude and 78°4’ and 810 34’ (east) longitude. It lies between the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north and the Vindhya Range to the south. Bundelkhand is a hot and semi- humid climate with highly variable depending on the region and with gently sloping upland, distinguished by barren hilly terrain with sparse vegetation, although it was historically forested. As with the rest of the Indian sub-continent, Bundelkhand experiences two main seasons, monsoon and dry. The monsoon brings over 90 percent of the annual rainfall between the months of June and September with the highest precipitation occurring in July and August. On an average, the region receives 75 cm to 125 cm of rain each year. The dry plains in the north usually receive less rain compared to the south- eastern part of the region. Minimum temperature varies from around 6-12 ^?C and maximum temperature varies from 38- 48 ^?C.

The region is blessed with plenty of natural resources. It had truly been endowed by nature, with beautiful mountains, good perennial rivers, fast flowing seasonal rivulets, large rich forest areas with valuable timber, fruit trees, numerous medicinal plants / herbs in almost each district. The rainfall here had been on average much better than many parts of India. Bundelkhand is a part of the central zone of India with a group of north-bound perennial rivers flowing and paying tribute to river Yamuna. From west to east these are Sind, Pahuj, Betwa, Dhasan, Ken, Baghein Paisuni and Tons. Along with Chambal and Yamuna these are ten major rivers. Other water resources in Bundelkhand are in form of water stored / conserved on surface termed as ponds, tanks, lakes etc. Bundelkhand has, undoubtedly, been one of the regions in India very much known for its historical rain-water management through man-made ponds, tanks and lakes. Topography here helped to build such structures but more than anything it reflected fore-sight and positive attitude of those rulers towards conservation of nature.

Introduction

India is considered as one of the emerging superpowers of the world. This potential is attributed to several indicators, the primary one being its demographic trends and a rapidly expanding economy. In 2015, India became the world’s fastest growing economy with a 7.5% estimated GDP rate. But in the year 2020, the pandemic lockdown situation created adverse impact on the global economy. At this juncture, there is an urgent need to focus on native and indigenous resource mapping and judicious utilization of it to be a self-reliant. The COVID-19 pandemic has necessitated a new set of reforms to strengthen the economy. The first mention of this came in the form of the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’ or ‘Self-Reliant India Mission’ by the Government of India during the announcement of the coronavirus pandemic related economic package on 12^th May 2020. Almost 70% of India’s population depends directly and indirectly on agriculture for their survival. This means the country cannot have a development model that ignores agriculture.

It’s time to take a look at India’s agriculture economy. Over the last 10 years, (2008-19) India has been a net exporter of many farm produce. In fact, in 2018, the government has come up with a new agricultural export policy aimed at doubling farm income by 2022. However, in 2019-20, agri-exports were just $36 billion and the agri-trade surplus was $11.2 billion. The net agri-trade surplus has been falling over a period of time, making it difficult to achieve doubling of farmers’ income and doubling of agriculture exports by 2022as well.

India is not yet self-reliant in various essential agriculture commodities and depends heavily on imports. India imports around 15 million tonnes of edible oil every year — more than 9 million tonnes of palm oil and about 2.5 million tonnes each of soybean oil and sunflower oil. It buys palm oil from Indonesia and Malaysia, and soy and sunflower oil from Argentina, Brazil, Ukraine and Russia. There is a need to create self-reliance in theses commodities enhancing productivity of Indian farms to create competitive advantage for domestic producers. India can step up cultivation of sunflower, groundnuts, mustard and oil palms. Presently, India has about two million hectares of land that is suitable for oil palm cultivation.

Abstract

The tradition of growing of flowers is age old. The flowers have travelled from the bowl of prayers to gardens to commercial sector for revenue. The quality concerned world demands for round the year production and supply of quality produce which can only be possible under controlled environment production. A range of location specific and crop specific infrastructures are being commercially used for production of planting material and flowers. General and crop specific guidelines for trade of cut flowers are available which the producers and policy makers must know for successful promotion of export of cut flowers from the country. The producer can also use practical methods for vase life study of their produce which is of great relevance in cut flower trade.

Keywords: Protected floriculture, trade, crop specific guidelines, export, cut flower

Introduction

Indian floriculture industry is shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers for export purpose. The liberalized economy has given an impetus to Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented units (EOUs) under controlled climatic conditions. The wide variations in agro climatic conditions in India permit us to grow various types of tropical and subtropical flowers. Though such plants grow successfully in open conditions without cover, they fail to meet the quality requirements of being blemish free. High quality ornamental plants meant for export should be scientifically grown only in plastic, glass or fibre glass greenhouses or at least under partial cover. Though initial investment is high in protected cultivation, the products in them will obtain far more attractive prices.

Family No. 1

Name and address:

Smt. Jamuna Khajuriputia

Age - 45 years, Caste - ST

Village – Rajbadei

Block – Similiguda, Koraput

Family size: A total of five members, husband Gopinath (50 years), the son Ramesh and Podu, daughter-in-law Dana and herself. Male : Female ratio is 3:2

Educational status: All members have education except daughter-in-law, Dana. The status score is 4.16 in 10 point scale.

2.1. Structure of fruits and vegetables

2.1.1. Fruit

• Fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries (Fig. 1). Plant product with aromatic flavors, which are either naturally sweet or normally sweetened before eating.

2.1.2. Vegetables

• It exhibits wide verity of plant structure like edible seeds, roots, stems, leaves, bulbs (Fig. 2), tubers and non-sweet fruits of herbaceous plants.

• Vegetables are grouped into 3 main categories

? Seeds and pods-contain natural wax coating. Eg. Many legumes

? Bulbs, roots and tubers with no coating, but tuber has suberisation

? Flowers, buds, stems and leaves having low shelf life