eChapters

Origin of systematics is as old as Vedas (1500 BC), Ramayana (1900 BC), Mahabharat (1400 BC) and Upanisad (350 BC) in which mention had been made about various animals.

History of Insect Classification

Linnaeus (1758-1766) in the 12th edition of Systema Naturae, divided insects into 9 orders

1. Coleoptera (earwigs – Dermeptera).

2. Orthoptera.

3. Hemiptera.

4. Lepidoptera.

5. Neuroptera (ant lion, Sialis, termites and dragon flies).

6. Hymenoptera

7. Diptera.

8. Thysanoptera.

9. Aptera (wingless insects, spiders, scorpions, terrestrial crustacians and Myriapods).

Introduction

The cerebellum, often referred to as the “little brain,” plays a crucial role in motor control, coordination, and speech. Dysarthria, a motor speech disorder manifested by difficulty in articulating words because of muscle weakness or incoordination, can be impacted by various factors along with drugs. Understanding the impact of drugs on cerebellar function and subsequent dysarthria is responsible for both medical professionals and individuals impacted by these conditions.

Cerebellar Abnormalities and Dysarthria

Cerebellar abnormalities can lead to a variety of causes including stroke, trauma, infections and neuro degenerative diseases. If the cerebellum is affected, it can lead to motor impairments namely ataxia (lack of coordination), tremors and dysarthria. Dysarthria particularly refers to difficulties in controlling the muscles used for speech, leading to slurred or unintelligible speech patterns.

Influence of Drugs on Cerebellar Function

Several drugs can influence cerebellar function either in a direct manner or an indirect manner. These drugs may impact neurotransmitter systems, interfere with neuronal activity or cause structural changes in the cerebellum. Some medications known to influence cerebellar function include:

Lameness in dairy animals is a serious health problem all over the world causing substantial economic losses to dairy industry owing to reduced milk production, reduced reproductive performance, cost of treatment including medicines, increased risk of culling, death, and the development of other diseases. Lameness can be defined as a state of being unable to walk properly because of pain in the limbs or foot. The incidence of lameness in the dairy herd is variable (1 to 50%) depending on the farm. In USA its incidence varies from 13 to 55% (Hoffman et al., 2014; Cook et al., 2016). Lameness may be due to diseases of limb and/or hoof of infectious and/or noninfectious origin. Lameness usually affects hind limbs because of greater load of the body on hind limbs. A lame animal adjusts gait and posture depending on the origin of the pain (foot or upper limb). Clinical signs of lameness include changes in locomotion (e.g. decreased speed, decreased stride, length and tracking, increased abduction,

The pros and cons of wheat imports are now a matter of public, political and media concern and debate. I have been quoted as both favouring imports and opposing it. Since this issue is a complex one with short- and long-term implications, I would like to explain my personal position.

The wheat import plan announced by the Government of India is in response to the need for maintaining adequate food stocks both for the purpose of food security and for feeding the public distribution system (PDS). Following the Wheat Revolution in 1968, Indira Gandhi decided to build a sufficient buffer stock of foodgrains under government control in order to ensure that the basic staples are available at reasonable prices even under conditions of unfavourable monsoon. She was also deeply conscious of the linkage between food security and sovereignty in foreign policy. Maintaining adequate food reserves is an absolute must from the point of view of avoiding both panic purchase and famines, particularly at times when there are indications of aberrant monsoon behaviour. Some years ago the Government of India had over 60 million tonnes of foodgrain reserves and substantial quantities were exported to reduce the cost of maintaining stocks of that order.

Puberty and sexual maturity

Puberty is defined as the age at which reproductive function is initiated in animals. This corresponds to changes in hormone levels and the ability to function sexually in order to reproduce. The puberty is the period when the sexual organs are functionally developed, libido is prominent and the male is able to produce the spermatozoa and is able to copulate resulting in pregnancy. The onset of puberty is a gradual process and occurs after achieving optimum body weight, which is influenced by plane of nutrition, genetic differences, management practices, breed, diseases and individual differences.

Historical Aspect

The primitive man during his long history as a hunter and food gatherer, used ruminants as food till about 6000 B.C. Later, he developed the arts of aerable -agriculture and animal husbandry. The ruminants played a major role as sources ofbothfoodandmechanicalwork. In turn, the new techniquesof foodproduction greatlyincreased the amount of food available and enabledthe establishment of settled communities.Theradicalnatureof thesedevelopments was clearlyshown by the fact that within a couple of millennia, manhad evolved from primitive to urbanized, civilized communities. Throughout the historical epochs, animal food - meat, milk and milk products continued to form an important fraction of the diet in most of the civilized societies. The favoured nature of these foods was well shown in the observation that, with increasing affluence, human -beings tended to increase the fraction of the diet provided by animal foods, especiallyfromruminants.

Since middle of twentieth century, evidences had been accumulating to indicate that the high intake of saturated fats from meat and ‘dairy products might play a role in the etiology of atherosclerosis. This concern had provided a stimulus to produce husbandrytechniquesleadingto the modification of the composition of ruminant fats as well as possibility of protecting dietary poly - unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from ruminal biohydrogenation in 1951. Scientists all the world round, started studying ruiminant fats and ruminal lipid metabolism in this perspective. Different research groups developed various techniques of protectingdietary- PUFA, so as to make themavailable in the meat, milk and its products, but lacked the availability of sensitive techniques for confirmation. With the discovery of Gas Chromatoaraphy (GC) in 1954, a new beginning of resolution and detection of PUFA started with gradual precision. Later on, the GC was further equipped with mass - spectroscopy and subsequently with infra -red detector. The scientists were very much successful in protecting the dietary essential fatty acids (E.F.A.s) or even by - passing them from biohydrogenation in vitro.

1.1. Farm business management

Concerned with resource allocation.

Useful to impart knowledge and skill for optimizing the resource use and maximizing profit.

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are root-colonizing bacteria that form symbiotic relationships with many plants. The name comes from the Greek rhiza, meaning root. Though parasitic varieties of rhizobacteria exist, the term usually refers to bacteria that form a relationship beneficial for both parties (mutualism). They are an important group of microorganisms used in biofertilizer. Biofertilization accounts for about 65% of the nitrogen supply to crops worldwide. The term PGPRs was first used by W. Kloepper in the late 1970s and has become commonly used in scientific literatures. PGPRs have different relationships with different species of host plants. The two major classes of relationships are rhizospheric and endophytic. Rhizospheric relationships consist of the PGPRs that colonize the surface of the root, or superficial intercellular spaces of the host plant, often forming root nodules. Endophytic relationships involve the PGPRs residing and growing within the host plant in the apoplastic space.Some common examples of PGPR genera exhibiting plant growth promoting activity are: Pseudomonas, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Burkholdaria, Enterobacter, Rhizobium, Erwinia, Mycobacterium, Mesorhizobium, Flavobacterium, etc.An ideal PGPR should possess high rhizosphere competence, enhance plant growth capabilities, have a broad spectrum of action, be safe for the environment, be compatible with other rhizobacteria, and be tolerant to heat, UV radiation, and oxidizing agent.

Haemorrhoids or piles are due to swelling or enlargement of the veins that supply the rectal outlet of the body. Localized inflammation and bleeding, and also thrombosis in many cases often complicate this painful condition. People who suffer from constipation and other bowel disorders are more likely to develop haemorrhoids. Piles are also more common in pregnancy, and in conditions affecting the liver and upper bowel.

Canine Thyroid Tumours

• Occurs as carcinoma
• Blood contamination also seen
• Cluster of cells
• Free nuclei seen in the pale-blue cytoplasm
• Dark blue to black pigment present in the cytoplasm
• Amorphous pink materials represents colloid
• Colloid and pigmented granuls indicates the thyroid origin
• Round to oval nuclei

Climate change is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that has significant impacts on agriculture, especially in terms of uncertainty and variability. Agricultural dynamics refer to the various factors that affect agricultural production, including climate, soil, water availability, pests, and diseases, as well as market forces and government policies. Climate change has significant impacts on agricultural dynamics. Variations in temperature, patterns of rainfall, and occurrences of extreme weather can influence crop yields and livestock production in both beneficial and detrimental ways (UCAR, 2021). The effects of climate change on farming can differ based on the geographical location and the specific agricultural practices employed (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019). For example, in some areas, increased rainfall may lead to increased crop yields, while in other areas, droughts may lead to crop failures and loss of income for farmers. Additionally, rising temperatures can cause reduced crop yields and decreased quality of some crops.

Uncertainty is a term used to describe a situation where there is a lack of information, knowledge, or predictability about a particular outcome or event. In agricultural dynamics, uncertainty can refer to a range of factors that can affect the production, distribution, and consumption of agricultural products. One of the most significant sources of uncertainty in agriculture is the weather. The productivity of crops can be significantly influenced by weather conditions, including rainfall and temperature and farmers need to effectively adjust their agricultural practices to adapt to these changing weather patterns (Guntukulaand Goyari, 2020). For example, droughts or floods can reduce crop yields, while frost or hail can damage crops(Lamaoui et al., 2018).

The social, ecological and economic interpretation of climate change by farmers involves understanding the interactions between the natural environment, social systems, and economic factors (Spash, Clive L, 2011). Farmers need to consider these interactions when making decisions about their farming practices. For example, changes in climate can affect the availability of water, soil fertility, and crop yields, which can in turn affect social and economic factors such as food security and income. Farmers need to take into account the wider consequences of their agricultural practices on society and the environment which includes considering the impacts on biodiversity, ecosystems, and human well-being (Warsaw et al., 2021).

31.1. Aim

To estimate the sodium benzoate contents in fruit and vegetable products.

31.2. Theory and Principle

Sodium benzoate is used as a class II preservative in preservation of pickles, sauces, squashes etc. Its estimation is important as the quantity of class II preservative shall not exceed maximum limit prescribed under FSSAI. In a sample containing NaCl, the benzoic acid is converted into water soluble sodium benzoate by addition of NaOH. When the Sodium benzoate solution is acidified with excess of HCl, water insoluble benzoic acid is formed which is extracted with chloroform. The chloroform is removed by evaporation and the residue containing benzoic acid is dissolved in alcohol and then titrated with standard sodium hydroxide.

Introduction

The cerebellum, a structure located at the back of the brain, plays a crucial role in coordinating movement, balance, and posture. Various factors along with drug use, can significantly impact its function resulting in cerebellar abnormalities. Among these effects, the rebound phenomenon stands out as a particularly intriguing aspect, shedding light on the intricate relationship between drugs and the brain.

Cerebellar Abnormalities and Drug Influence

Cerebellar Ataxia

Drug-induced cerebellar ataxia is a common manifestation of cerebellar dysfunction. Substances such as alcohol, anti epileptic drugs and certain chemotherapy agents can disrupt cerebellar function, leading to uncoordinated movements and impaired balance.

Neurotransmitter Imbalance

Many drugs alter neurotransmitter levels in the brain, affecting communication between neurons. GABAergic and glutamatergic neuro transmission, in particular, play crucial roles in cerebellar function. Disruption of these systems by drugs can contribute to cerebellar abnormalities.

Our nature is the greatest or only laboratory where a large number of events are occurring at every fraction of a second - there are so many events, creatures, miseries taking place in the nature. Rightly it is considered an unparallel and biggest laboratory, man has ever witnessed. However, understanding it’s any event requires deep devotion and understanding,then only success will come. Our Philosopher and Poet Kabirdas has understood these facts as have reflected in his various couplets “Jin khoja tin paiya, gahre pani paith” or “chalti chaki dekh kar diya kabira roye, do patan ke beech main sabit bacha na koi“. For an ordinary person earth is still flat and he may not know the reasons for change of seasons.

Practical have a significant role in the study of any theoretical subject. Whatever a student learns in theory, he verifies it by actual doing with his own hands.  Thus, these reduce any doubts and misbelieve from his mind. These verifications by actually doing the things are performed in the laboratories.  A laboratory is a place with the basic and essential equipments and adequate facilities for students and teachers to perform and observe experiments.  Plants will continue to provide novel products as well as chemical models for new drugs in the coming centuries.  The arrival of chemical analysis and the characterization of molecular structures have helped in precisely identifying these plants and correlating them with their activity under controlled experimentation.

Bioinformatics can be defined as “the collection, archiving, organization and interpretation of biological data” (Orengo et al., 2003). By extension, structural bioinformatics deals with the collection, archiving, organization and interpretation of 3-D structural data of bio macromolecules. Structural bioinformatics emerged with the first crystal structures of haemoglobin and myoglobin. These structures were analyzed and contributed significantly to our understanding of the principles of life at a molecular level. A repository of all publicly accessible protein crystal structures, the Protein Data Bank (PDB) was established by Walter Hamilton et al., at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1971. Until the late 1980s, structural biologists often knew all the available structures of bio macromolecules and much of the analysis, such as structure comparison and hydrogen-bonding analysis was done manually without much computer intervention. As the number of available structures increased, so did the need for software tools for structure analysis. Structural bioinformatics encompasses a wide variety of applications, including structure visualization, validation, classification, structure-based function prediction, identification of targets for structural genomics projects and prediction of the structures of individual bio macromolecules and complexes as well the binding modes of small molecules inside proteins of pharmaceutical or biotechnological interestStructural and theoretical analyses of proteins are central to the understanding of complex molecular mechanisms and are fundamental to the drug discovery process.

12.1 Supply Chain Management

Supply chain management encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion and all logistics management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third party service providers, and customers. In essence, supply chain management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies.

In India marigold is one of the most commonly grown flowers and used extensively on religious and social functions in different forms. Because of their ease in cultivation, wide adaptability to varying soil and climatic conditions, long duration of flowering and attractively coloured flowers of excellent keeping quality, the marigolds have become one of the most popular flowers in our country. Flowers are sold in the market as loose or as garlands. Due to its variable height and colour marigold is especially use for decoration and included in landscape plans.

INTRODUCTION

Libraries are social institutions bestowed with the responsibility of storing preserving the cultural heritage of accounting and making them available for use to the community. The inherent characteristics of artifacts, the storage conditions and the type; intensity and amount of the processes of monitoring the physical condition of the library’s materials and taking action to prevent future deterioration are critical issues. Preservation issues can be defined as those that relate to the longevity of materials, while conservation issues include handling and storage. Ironically, books published since the beginning of the 20^th century are more likely to decay than the older books. Other modern materials such as microfilm, photographs, videotapes, and films have unique preservation need.

Pneumonia was once one of the most dreaded diseases known to man. It is no longer so. But pneumonia is still a serious disease. Germs causing pneumonia re of various types, such as streptococcus, staphylococcus, and pneumococcus varieties. Certain viruses are also responsible at times.

Pneumonia may be defined as an acute infectious disease of the lung, caused by the micrococcus lanceoaltus affecting principally the parenchyma.