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Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed programme. This basically depends upon,

• The rate of genetic deterioration
• Seed multiplication ratio
• Total seed demand (Seed replacement rate)

Aim

To determine the tapped bulk density and flowability of the food powder.

Materials required

Raw material (powder)

Measuring cylinder

Electronic weighing balance

Tapped bulk density of the powder

Tapped bulk density is measured for powdery samples. The volume is measured after tapping the powdery material so that the product is adjusted to inter-granular spaces, but it cannot eliminate all the inter-granular spaces. The tapped density is an increased bulk density attained after mechanically tapping a container containing the powder sample.

It is caused by the entry of the bacteria in to the blood.

The pathogenetic bacteria or their products usually enter the blood through some break in the skin or mucous membrane. Although sepsis may be more easily traced to infection through tears in the parturient canal and other wounds, yet many cases have their origin in the respiratory organs, digestive tract including the teeth and other organs or tissues. Suppuration in any part of the body like otitis, dental or rectal fistula may give rise to sepsis. Gonorrhea or the infections may be directly the cause of sepsis or indirectly by leaving channels for the invading organisms. The most frequent organisms are the staphylococci, although ten or twelve others have been found. Sepsis affects both sexes and all ages.

In the pyemic cases, the abscesses, emboli, thrombi, degeneration of the surrounding tissues, etc., were found most frequently in the lungs then kidneys, spleen and liver. Changes found: blood dark and disintegrated; spleen large and soft; fatty degeneration of the heart; kidney large, pale with prechynmatous changes; liver large with fatty degeneration.

Ali Demirci et al., (2014) studied the reactors with biofilms which are used to produce many value added products. These include organic acids, alcohols, enzymes, antibiotics, bacteriocins and many more. Many bioreactor designs favor the biofilm formation in a reactor. The biofilm reactors are utilized for fermentation and bioconversion of large amount of biomass. Recently, the biofilm reactors have been applied for production of many value-added products with novel designs. According to Ercan and Demirci (2015) the biofilms can cause both detrimental and beneficial effects in the environment. Biofilms in bioreactors has many advantages due to the membrane fouling which reduces the cost. Higher biomass density can be utilized and the operation is more stable.Biofilm reactors are commercially being utilized for waste water treatment, bench and pilot-scale production of value-added products. In order to run the biofilm reactor at optimum conditions it is important to understand the fundamentals of biofilm formation, the different properties

Introduction

Mulberry is one of the important minor fruits found to grow all over India from tropical to temperate regions. It is mainly cultivated in India for rearing silk worm. Silk worms feed on the leaves of the mulberry plant. Its sour-sweet taste of fruits is becoming very popular in India and abroad. It is cultivated in South eastern and Southern parts of Asia, whole Africa, Southern-Europe, Australia and some parts of North and South America. It is mainly found to grow in the sub-Himalayan tracts. It is grown in the states of Kashmir, Karnataka, Punjab, Uttra Pradesh and some parts of West Bengal. In Indian its cultivation was introduced from Persia. In India it is widely cultivated in about 40,000 hectares of area. Karnataka has the largest area of about 28,000 hectares and Kashmir occupies the second position.

37.1. Aim

To prepare ready to serve drink from fruits.

37.2. Theory

Ready to serve (RTS) drink is a type of fruit beverage which contains at least 10% of fruit juice and 10 degree Brix total soluble solids (TSS) with 0.3% acidity. It is not diluted before serving, hence it is known as ready to serve beverage. Mango drink, guava drink, pineapple drink are the commercial products available in the market.

Sweetened fruit juice is categorized as ready to serve beverage in which the minimum juice content shall be 85% with a minimum TSS of 10%, while unsweetened juice is a natural juice having 100% fruit juice with natural total soluble solids. These are preserved by heat processing method. Sweetened apple, pear juices are commercially manufactured.

Theory

Porosity is a physical property characterizing the texture and the quality of dry and intermediate moisture foods. Porosity means inter-granular space. It is the measure of void space between the materials. Porosity may be defined as the percentage of volume of inter-grain space to the total volume of grain bulk. Porosity depends on size, shape, dimension, and roughness of grain surface.

The porosity of an unconsolidated agricultural material can either be determined experimentally using the porosity tank method or theoretically from bulk and true densities of the material. Porosity can be determined from the difference between bulk volume of a porous material and its volume after destruction of all voids by compression. Porosity determination requires the knowledge of the total or apparent volume, and the void volume included in the material matrix; their difference is also known as the particle volume.

MALE STERLITY, or failure to fertilize female egg cells, may be due to several causes. In some cases the trouble is due to an emotional factor, such as a mental block. It may be caused by an absence or atrophy of the testes, or perhaps by some obstruction in the male genital organs. Infections involving the 'genital organs may result in the production of unhealthy or even dead sperm cells. In such cases special tests may locate the seat of the trouble, which may be treated surgically.

FEMALE STERLITY, or failure to have children may arise from several different causes. Sometimes the trouble is due to the husband.

The ovum remains viable and capable of being fertilized after it is expelled from the ovary probably no longer than 24 hours. Therefore, sperm must be available soon after ovulation if fertilization is to take place. On the other hand, a few sperm can remain fertile in the female reproductive tract for up to 72 hours, although most of them for not more than 24 hours. Therefore fertilization to take place, intercourse usually must occur sometime between 1 to 2 days before ovulation and up to 1 day after ovulation

Introduction

Olives are found growing wild in the Himalayan region comprising Kullu, Shimla, Solan, and Sirmour districts of Himachal Pradesh. It is extensively used for the extraction of oil from its fruits. Its oil is edible, possessing a valuable therapeutic character. About 92% of its production is used for oil extraction. The main producers of olive oil are Spain, Tunisia, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, and the adjoining gulf countries. Olive cultivation in India has been limited to the north Sub-Himalayan region, which includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.

In India, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOH&FW), dealing with the subject of food quality and safety at the national level, has been designated the nodal ministry for maintaining food standards. The instrument for ensuring food quality and safety at the national level is through a legislation titled Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (PFA) and Rules made there under as amended from time-to-time.

Media for plant growth and seed germination has great significance in nursery business. It is the basic need of the propagation industry. The material for rooting and growing media may be used either alone or incorporated with one or more products in combination. The materials used for rooting media may be naturally occurring or may be manufactured artificially.

Characteristics of an ideal rooting medium: These are as follows.

1. The medium must be sufficiently firm and dense to hold the cuttings or seeds in place during rooting or germination.
2. It must retain sufficient water and air, allowing sufficient drainage.
3. It should be highly decomposed and stable.
4. It must be free from weed seeds, insect pests and diseases.
5. Acidity or alkalinity should be the optimum for different species.
6. Its volume must be fairly constant, when either wet or dry.
7. It must be capable of being sterilized.

38.1. Aim

To prepare nectar from different fruit pulp/juice.

38.2. Theory

Fruit nectar is also a RTS drink but it contains not less than 150Brix TSS and not less than 20% fruit juice or pulp. It is preserved only by heat processing as such no preservative is allowed in fruit nectars. Mango nectar, guava nectar etc. are the commercial products in this category.

38.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Mango, guava, and pineapple nectars are commercially available in the market. However the nectar can also be prepared from a number of other fruits like jamun, aonla, apricot, papaya, plum and bael etc.

Classification involves grouping organisms into a series of hierarchical categories. Actual method of establishing a classification consists in defining groups or categories on a hierarchical scale. The animals can be classified in a taxonomic hierarchy consisting of a series of categories of ascending ranks from species to kingdom. Each of these categories includes one or more groups from the next lower level. Therefore, all animals can be classified in a taxonomic hierarchy consisting a series of categories in ascending order from species to kingdom such as species, genus, family, order, class, phylum and kingdom.

According to the history of biological classification, Aristotle, a Greek philosopher classified different animals based on the habitat, characteristics etc. Later Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus introduced taxonomic hierarchy categories during 18th century and this system is followed globally.

Taxonomic hierarchy refers to the sequence of categories in increasing or decreasing order. Kingdom is the highest rank and species is the lowest rank in hierarchy. Taxonomic hierarchy is the process of arranging various organisms into successive levels of biological classification. Each of the level of the hierarchy is called taxonomic category or rank.

Concept: Seed blending is the process of merging two or more types of the same species, for as Kentucky bluegrass cultivars Merion, Baron, and Park. Contrarily, seed mixing refers to the blending of two or more species, however every species may have more than one variation represented, such as Jamestown and Cascade chewing fescue combined with Merion and Fylking Kentucky bluegrass. Seed is typically distributed in blends, primarily Kentucky bluegrass blends, for sod growing purposes. For home lawns, parks, and other utility areas where upkeep levels would not be adequate to maintain pure Kentucky bluegrass turf, mixes of different grasses are typically employed. Naturally, when it comes to pure seed quality, no blend of grass seeds is superior to the individual ingredients. Every time a new blend needs to be made; extreme caution must be taken to ensure that the mixing equipment can be completely cleaned to prevent any contamination from unwanted species—bent grasses are perhaps the most challenging to deal with.

Fruit, vegetables and their products are important sources of ascorbic acid. Aonla, guava and citrus fruits are good sources of Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid).Ascorbic acid is sensitive to heat, light and oxygen but is stable in acidic
 media. The methods for estimation of Ascorbic acid are based on the reduction of 2,6 -dichlorophenol - indophenol dye by ascorbic acid and those based on the reaction of dehydroascorbic acid with 2,4- dinitrophenylhydrazine. However,the 2,6 -dichlorophenol - indophenol dye reduction method is most commonly used in the estimation of ascorbic acid in fresh fruit and vegetables and their processed products.
2,6 dichlorophenol - indophenol visual titration method
The dye, which is blue in an alkaline solution and red in an acid solution, isreduced by ascorbic acid to a colorless form. The reduction is quantitative and specific for ascorbic acid in solutions in the pH range of 1-3.5.
Reagents
i. 3% Metaphosphoric acid (HPO3) solution:Dissolve 3g sticks/ pelletsofMetaphosphoric acidin a volumetric flask and make volume to 1oo ml with glassdistilled water.

Straws consist of the stems and leaves that remain after the threshing of mature seeds. These materials are characterized by their high fiber content and lignin, while offering minimal nutritional benefits. Straws are primarily utilized as feed for ruminants, rather than for monogastric animals such as pigs or poultry.
Paddy and wheat straw: These are byproducts of grain harvesting and are commonly used as a primary feed source for cattle and buffalo. Their nutritional profile is low, with approximately 3-5% CP and 40% TDN. They are deficient in essential minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, and proteins. Paddy straw contains about 6-7% lignin in its dry matter, which is lower than that found in other cereal straws. However, it has a high ash content (17% of dry matter) and elevated silica levels. Notably, the stems of paddy straw are more digestible than the leaves. The addition of urea can enhance the feeding value of straw, although the high lignin content may diminish its palatability. Urea treated rice straw contains around 8.1-9.5% CP (normal level is 3.5-5.3%) where as urea treated wheat straw contains around 8.5-9% CP (normal CP is 2.63-4.20%). Additionally, paddy straw contains significant amounts of oxalic acid, which can hinder calcium absorption in the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, while also contributing bulk to their diet.
Barley straw: It has a nutritive value comparable to that of oat straw, but it presents challenges due to the presence of barbed beards. Its composition includes 0.30% DCP and 48% TDN.
Oat straw: It is regarded as one of the superior options for cattle feed, being soft, palatable and more nutrient-rich than other straw types. On average, it contains 0.3% DCP, 48% TDN, 0.38% Ca and 0.07% P.
Pulses straw: These includes varieties such as black gram, green gram, moth bean, pigeon pea and cow pea, is relatively palatable and nutritious for cattle. Among these, black gram, green gram and moth bean straws are particularly noted for their palatability and nutritional value. While the energy content of these straws is similar to that of cereal straws, they tend to provide a better
source of digestible protein. For high milk-producing cattle, supplementation with energy-dense feeds like cereal grains is often necessary.

ABSTRACT

The conventional agricultural extension service in India is mainly provided by extension workers visiting farmers to provide agricultural advisory services. This system of extension service provision faces a number of challenges including the few number of extension workers and limited resources. The effectiveness of an impact-driven, radio-based extension service delivery system that has been introduced in some rural areas of India. The system aims to enable extension workers to reach many farmers with minimum efforts. However little is known about the effectiveness of this new extension service delivery system. In rural areas, farmers have started sharing agricultural related information and best practices. Some farmers have also started to change their farming practices. This brings a new finding that farmers can adopt and practice easily what is aired by their fellow farmers in the community radio stations.

Algae refer to an assemblage of polyphyletic organism that conducts oxygen evolving photosynthesis other than land plants. They are distributed widely throughout India in the sea, in fresh water and in moist situations on land. Algae also form an important component of biodiversity of Andaman and Nicobar Group of Islands. Database for Algae resources of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are created with an aim of providing an information pool to the researchers working in fields related to fresh water and marine water algae in Andaman and Nicobar Group of Islands. About 313 fresh water algal species belonging to 15 families and 57 marine algal species belonging to 18 families has included in this database among which 40 species has been found to be first time reported in India. Algae have a wide application in a variety of Industries such as Food, Fodder, and Fertilizer etc. They are also important sources of Protein, Iodine, Vitamins, Minerals and Substances of Antibiotic Nature.

Theory

The specific gravity is defined as the unit weight of the product mass divided by the unit weight of distilled water at 4°C. The unit density is obtained by measuring the volume and weight of a unit product. Sometimes it is required to compare the density of the product to the density of water. This comparison is in the form of ratio and is termed as the specific gravity.

Specific gravity also known as relative density is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of a standard substance at the same temperature and pressure. For solids and liquids the standard substance is water while for gasses it is air. The specific gravity of food material play an important role in design of storage bins, conveying equipments, separation equipments, etc. The specific gravity is frequently used to solve the various phase relationships, including void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation together with the moisture content and unit weight. It is also used in calculations associated with the grain size analysis, consolidation and compaction. Pycnometer method, which is a standardized vessel for determining specific gravity. It involves a standard container of accurately defined volume used to determine the specific gravity of solids and liquids.

9.1. Risk

Situation in which one knows both possible future and probability outcomes.