eChapters

GENERAL CHARACTERS

• Ascomycotina includes only such fungi in which the zygospores are absent and the perfect state spores are the ascospores.
• The Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes are sometimes combindly called ‘higher fungi’.
• Cell wall is made up of chitin.
• Mycelium is well developed branched and septate.
• Asexual spores are non-motile conidia.
• Sexual spores are ascospores.
• Ascospores are usually 8 in an ascus.
• They are produced endogenously inside the ascus.
• The asci are usually grouped to form a definite type of multicellular fruiting body called ascocarp.
• The ascocarps are either cup or saucer shaped ( apothecium), flask shaped (perithecium), or closed, spherical and indehiscent (cleistothecium).
• The characteristic ascospores are present in sac- like body, called ascus and therefore these fungi are also commonly called ‘sac fungi’
• Yeast is single celled organism.

GENERAL CHARACTERS

• The Mastigomycotina includes all eumycota fungi which produce flagellated cells during their life cycle.
• Majority of them are with filamentous hyaline coenocytic mycelium.
• Cell wall contains cellulose.
• They show centric nuclear divison.
• The mode of nutrition is typically absorptive, because a majority of mastigomycotina contains some or other type of haustoria.
• They produce asexual spores called zoospores.
• Oospore is the sexual spores.
• Members of the class oomycetes are mostly aquatic but some are facultative or obligate parasites of vascular plants.

1.0. Objectives

• Identifying the subject and verb of a sentence
• Understand the rules of correct writing
• Illustration of the significance of the forms of verbs according to the subject in sentences
• The practice of choosing a verb that goes with the subject of a sentence

Raster sub-setting is done to select the desired area or bands of the raster image on which the user wants to perform analysis. Raster sub-setting is done in two ways:

Spectral subset: Spectral sub-setting is done to extract few desired bands from the multiband raster image which are required for analysis.

Spatial subset: Spatial sub-setting is done to minimize the area or extent of raster image to the desired area or extent for further analysis.

Raster sub-setting in R is done by functions available in the ‘raster’ package. The following packages are required in this chapter:

Abstract

Mushroom production is emerging as an added dimension in agriculture diversity; its cultivation lies on the utilization of agricultural wastes rich in proteinaceous materials. Five different substrates such as wheat straw, maize cob, paddy straw, banana pseudo stem, and lentil straw were used with suitable supplements to evaluate the average period of spawn run, pin head initiation, time taken for harvesting of flushes, fruit yield during both crop season 2014 and 2015. In 2014, highest fruit yield (380.3 g/ 500g) were recorded when wheat straw supplemented with rice bran (2% of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw and gypsum @ 20 g/kg straw among various used substrates. This treatment also resulted better in respect of time taken for spawn run (9.3 days), pin head initiation (11.7 days), time taken for harvesting of flushes (I^st flush- 20.5, II^nd flush-26.7, III^rd flush- 32.9). The second best treatment was paddy straw when supplemented with rice bran (2% of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw, and gypsum @ 20 g/kg. The lowest fruit yield (193.6 g/500g), time taken for spawn run (15.9 days), pin head initiation (22.4 days), time taken for harvesting of flushes (I^st flush- 27.9, II^nd flush-37.1, III^rd flush- 44.7) were recorded with banana pseudostem (chopped) when supplemented with rice bran (2 % of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw and CaCO₃ gypsum @ 20 g/kg straw. The same experiment was repeated during the year crop season 2015. Surprisingly wheat straw supplemented with rice bran (2% of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw and gypsum @ 20 g/kg prepared straw was found again superior over other treatments with more or less similar performance. Similarly more or less same performances were resulted in rest of the treatment too. The incidence of mould infection in mushroom was also noticed in accordance with the kinds of substrates used during both crop season 2014 and 2015. Lowest incidence of mould i.e. green mould (5.13 %), black mould (3.10 %) and blue mould (2.42%) was observed on wheat straw when supplemented with rice bran (2% of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw and gypsum @ 20 g/kg straw, green mold (3.13 %), black mold (3.10 %) and blue mold (2.42 %). Similarly more or less same pattern of mould incidence was reported in the crop season 2015.

An aquarium functions as more than a simple container for aquatic life— it is a carefully balanced miniature ecosystem designed to replicate the natural environment of its inhabitants. Key elements that support both the biological health and visual aesthetics of an aquarium include substrates, gravels, and decorative features. These components are essential for creating a stable, appealing, and lifesupporting
underwater world.
Substrates serve as the foundational layer in any aquarium setup and fulfill several critical roles—biological, chemical, and mechanical. They offer a surface for beneficial bacteria to thrive, help root aquatic plants securely, impact water chemistry by altering pH and hardness, and shape the visual theme of the tank. The type of substrate used—be it sand, gravel, nutrient-rich soil, or crushed coral—depends on the specific aquarium setup, whether it’s a freshwater, marine, planted, or biotope-focused tank.
Gravels, a common form of substrate, combine utility with decorative value. Available in diverse sizes, textures, and colors, they contribute to the tank’s visual appeal while also supporting aeration and microbial life in the substrate layer. Choosing the right type of gravel depends on the species of fish and plants involved, as well as the intended function of the tank.
Decorative elements such as rocks, driftwood, ceramic structures, and aquaticsafe ornaments add character and structure to the aquarium’s layout. Beyond aesthetics, they serve practical purposes—providing shelter, defining territories, and encouraging natural behaviors like hiding or exploring. These additions can also help recreate specific natural settings, like riverbanks or coral reefs, thereby increasing the aquarium’s realism and educational value.

Citrus is the world’s leading tree fruit crop, comprising of mandarins, sweet oranges, grape fruit, limes and lemons. It is one of the most important fruit crops grown under varying agroclimatic conditions in India except in the high hilly temperature regions. Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) is the most important commercial citrus in India followed by sweet oranges and acid limes. Citrus fruits are not only delicious and refreshing but also they provide vitamins, minerals and other substances. Different species of Citrus have different chemical composition. In sweet oranges, principal constituents of edible portions are sugars (glucose + sucrose) and acids (primarily citric acid and a little of malic acid), the fruits of acid groups contain primarily acids in fruit juice. Rind of citrus fruits is rich in pectin and contains essential oils and glucosides (hesperidin, naringin). Citrus fruits are a good source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid - 25 to 85 mg/100 ml juice), besides vitamin B, A and D. World-wide demand of orange is as fresh fruits, but orange marmalade is an important product and is one of the main uses of sour and sweet oranges. Grape fruit and mandarins are also taken as fresh fruits. Citrus fruit can be utilized in a number of other ways as salads, juices, squashes, cocktails, syrup, concentrates and pickles. Peel of thick-rinded fruits can also be made to delicious candy. Lemon is used in many culinary purposes. Grape fruit is utilized in preparation of wines and brandies and also for flavour and in perfumery.

Farming-based livelihood systems can be influenced by a variety of risk and success factors. Understanding these can help farmers and policymakers develop strategies to enhance sustainability and resilience in agricultural
communities. Here are key points outlining both risk and success factors.
Risk Factors
1. Climate Change and Weather Variability:
• Unpredictable weather patterns, droughts, floods, and shifting growing seasons can adversely affect crop yields.
2. Market Fluctuations
• Price volatility for agricultural products can impact income stability. Changes in demand and supply dynamics can also affect profitability.
3. Pest and Disease Outbreaks
• Infestations of pests or diseases can lead to significant crop losses and increased costs for farmers.
4. Access to Resources
• Limited access to land, water, credit, and agricultural inputs (seeds, fertilizers, equipment) can hinder productivity.
5. Soil Degradation
• Poor soil health due to overuse of chemicals, erosion, or unsustainable farming practices can reduce agricultural output.

10.1. Success Story of Mahila Umang Producer Company Ltd.

Mahila Umang Producer Company is established at Almora district of Uttarakhand, India. The company is fully operated by the hill women of Uttarakhand. There were 1464 members associated in this company. The company was established as a formal Farmer Producer Company in the year 2009 by the help of the promoting Non- government Organisation ‘Grassroots’. Before that it was working as a conglomerate of SHGs. 

Introduction

Farmers Producer Organisations are associations of farmers and other rural producers formed based on membership to advance the members' common interests, engage in mutually beneficial technical and economic activities, and foster and sustain relationships with other organisations active in the same economic and institutional sphere. Farmer Producer Organisations (FPO) are a way for farmers, especially those on the margins of the industry, to band together and establish a strong front against the myriad problems plaguing the agricultural sector, including a lack of capital, knowledge, and access to markets. To better organise farmers, increase their ability to pool their resources, and increase their competitive edge in the marketplace, the Indian government's Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) has determined that Farmer Producer Organisations incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 are the best vehicle for doing so.

Background

More than 85% of India's 12.5 million agricultural households are classified as small and marginal farmers because they own less than two hectares of land. Every farmer, on average, owns 1.33 hectares of land. For farmers, investing in cutting-edge farming techniques and high-yielding inputs like seeds and fertiliser is simply not feasible in the current economic climate. They also don't make much money off their marketable surplus when they sell it off piece by piece. One strategy for farmers to reduce the cost of inputs and increase their bargaining position in the marketplace is to form Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs).

Abstract
Small-scale farming in India, particularly through organic and innovative methods, demonstrates significant profitability potential, as evidenced by success stories in Haryana. Ramesh Chander Dagar from Akbarpur Barota earns Rs. 10 lakh annually from one hectare through integrated organic farming, leveraging solar power, greenhouses, and beekeeping. Anil Kumar in Kalri Nanhera generates Rs. 6-7 lakh per annum from a one-acre polyhouse cultivating Gerbera flowers, supported by government subsidies and niche branding under "Batan Farm." Uday Veer Singh Rana’s honey processing unit in Karnal yields Rs. 15 lakh profit from Rs. 80 lakh sales, utilizing strategic door-to-door marketing. Shemsher Rana’s polyhouse cucumber cultivation in Panipat nets Rs. 25 lakh from Rs. 60-70 lakh sales, capitalizing on high-demand markets like Azadpur Mandi. Pankaj Yadav’s Natura Greentech nursery in Gurgaon earns Rs. 5-8 lakh annually through online sales on platforms like Flipkart, offering ornamental plants and aftercare services. These cases highlight how organic farming, polyhouse cultivation, and innovative agri-ventures can transform small farms into profitable enterprises, fostering rural economic growth.
Keywords: Organic Farming, Agri-preneurship, Small Farms, Polyhouse Cultivation, Nursery Business, Profitability, Haryana, Integrated Farming, Beekeeping, Online Sales

I always feel I am very lucky and got a chance to live in this beautiful God gifted planet by blessings of God and whatever God fixed for me I am trying my best to do so that I can fulfil my journey and reach to my destine and finally will back to the same place where I came. My father was a Botany Lecturer, he retired from his job in the year 2009 and my Mother is a house wife. I have one brother and two sisters. All are married now and me my misses, my son (Calyx) staying at my native village with my parents after I came back from Indian Agricultural research Institute and my brother and two sisters are staying at Bhubaneswar. I have a very small family staying happily at my village. I have completed my schooling at my village school which is just 1 km away from my home. My village Garh Guatira is belongs to Nimapara block of Puri district of Odissha and it is just 50 km away from Bhubaneswar. My village is very small which is surrounded by agriculture field specially 90% area is under rice cultivation. So I spent my childhood with my natural village climate and maximum time I spent in the village surroundings with its natural activities. I got first class in Botany (Hons) with distinction from the Nimapara college and it was one of the best moments for me, at least one step I moved towards my destination.

In food production remarkable progress has been made in the last fifty years in agricultural production and self – sufficiency (Food security) has been reached. Yet nutritional security seems to be a distant goal. With depleting natural resources and increasing threat to the environment, sustainable crop production is attracting the attention of the scientists, farmers and administrators. Due to over exploitation of natural resources and indiscriminate use of agro chemicals, green revolution also brought in quite a lot of miseries which focus the urgent need to have EVERGREEN REVOLUTION that is sustainable, leading to food and nutritional security to the rural poor. At this juncture it will be more appropriate to practicing organic agriculrure through the integration of traditional wisdom and modern scientific knowledge in synergy with nature.

19.1. Eco-friendly Technologies for Rice Cultivation

A sound package of eco-friendly technologies to grow rice is being successfully adopted by a few progressive farmers in Puliangudi village in Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. “The technologies work well with indigenous rice varieties such as Kitchili Samba. The cost of cultivation is substantially reduced and the organic rice fetches a premium price in the market,” says Mr. P. Gomathinayagam, a pioneer in organic farming in Puliangudi.

Introduction

Northeastern Region of India consists of eight States, viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim.  The northeastern states are located between geographical ordinates, 21° to 29°30' N and 89°46' to 97°30' E. The region, surrounded almost on all sides by Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh, which can be broadly divided into two characteristic zones viz., Mountainous and Plain. Although distinguished in the altitude differences, both the mountain and plain are closely interrelated in terms of natural resource sharing and economic flow. According to the physiographic characters this region is divided into five physiographic units, the Assam Himalayas, the Brahmaputra valley, the Shillong plateau, the Barak valley and the Southeastern hill region. Except the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys in Assam and the Imphal valley in Manipur, the terrain is hilly and mountainous, only making 65% of the northeast an undulating land with elevations ranging from 200 to 900 m above MSL

Sustainability is one of the main guiding principles for our modern societies. Water and sustainable development are closely linked since the provision of water is sufficient quantities and of high quality have important impacts on our environment, society and industry as well as the well-being of next generation.

Nowadays, there are several emerging problems and risk that affects the sustainable management of water resources. Pollution diffusion pose major threat. Water resources and demand for water remain unbalanced at various levels. Groundwater abstraction and over exploitation have serious environmental impacts. Reservoirs for water storage, flood control, recreation and energy production remain controversial. Climate change on the other hand is creating lot of impact on both water availability and water demand. These problems have not only physical, chemical, biological and ecological dimensions but encompass also important socio-economic issues such as, regulatory framework for water resources management, methods to balance conflicting human and ecosystem demand, financial sustainability of water management system. This shows the complexity water managers face for sustainable management of water resources and the need to shift from strong traditional, local and regional water resources management approaches to more integrated river basin approaches dealing with uncertainties in environmental conditions, societal development and global change.

Drones have transformed the agriculture sector, altering farming methods by offering advanced solutions for crop monitoring and management. These unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have several applications that improve production, efficiency, and sustainability. Drones help precision agriculture by allowing farmers to collect real-time data on crop health, soil conditions, and field variability. Drones utilize high-resolution imagery and remote sensing technology to identify early signs of pests, illnesses, and nutrient deficits, facilitating targeted interventions. Drones also facilitate irrigation control, seed sowing, and crop spraying, thereby decreasing labor expenses and mitigating environmental impact. Consequently, drone technology is enabling farmers to make better informed decisions, improve resource utilization, and eventually enhance yields.
REAL-WORLD EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL DRONE APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
Drones are increasingly being used in agriculture across India to boost productivity, ensure efficient resource use, and reduce environmental impact. In recent years, the Indian agricultural sector has witnessed significant adoption of drone technology, which has proven to be a valuable tool for precision farming. Below are some real-world examples of successful drone applications in Indian agriculture:
Precision Farming for Crop Monitoring
In the states of Maharashtra and Punjab, drones are being used by farmers for precision farming to monitor crop health and growth. The drones, equipped with multispectral sensors, capture detailed images of fields and analyze data on crop health, soil moisture, and pest infestations. One example is AeroFarms, an Indian startup that uses drones to monitor fields and help farmers detect early signs of crop diseases and nutrient deficiencies. By assessing the data from drone imaging

Introduction 
The Pleurotus species, belongs of the basidiomycetes class, are typically grown on non-composted lignocellulose substrates and have a shorter growth cycle compared to other types of mushrooms (Bellettini et al., 2018). These are shell-like fruiting bodies commonly known as “oyster mushroom” and also referred as “Dhingri mushroom” in India. The fanor spatula-shaped fruit body can be found in various colours depending on the species, including white, pink, yellow, grey, and blue (Verma et al., 2023). Their cultivation is popular due to the simple and low-cost methods. These mushrooms are highly favored not only for their taste, flavor, and pleasing texture but also for their nutritional and medicinal benefits (Sharma and Khanna 2019, Sarita et al., 2023). Pleurotus sp. are found naturally in both temperate and tropical regions across the globe which are cultivated more widely around the world due to their adaptable nature (Badshah et al., 2021). Despite their potential, India’s mushroom production has declined significantly, from 487 million MT in 2017 to 314.84 million MT in 2023 (Anonymous, 2023). Mushroom farming in Gujarat presents several opportunities due to various factors such as favorable climatic conditions, easy availability of raw material increasing market demand and supportive government initiatives. In India, rice straw is 80 Innovations of University Extension in Indian Agriculture mainly used as substrate for large scale mushroom production (Kundu et al., 2022). But, cultivation and consumption of mushroom were limited due to lack of awareness about the health benefits of this high valued food. However, by the efforts of KVKs under Agricultural Universities through the trainings and awareness programs, mushroom cultivation becomes popular among the people of Gujarat particularly in rural areas. Entrepreneurs and farmers can tap into this growing sector for profitable ventures, provided they are equipped with the necessary knowledge and resources.

These are a broad group of plants that have evolved in situations characterized by very high day temperatures and low night temperatures with very low available moisture in the growing medium. Their plant body is modified to conserve moisture with physiological adaptations that help to reduce moisture loss considerably and to survive in hot desert situations or drought conditions. Stems, leaves and roots of these plants are fleshy and rich in watery mucus. The unusual morphological features that these plants have developed to enable them to survive in their harsh native habitats, set them apart from other plants and have given them rarity value when grown as ornamentals. They are hence displayed individually or grown in a rockery where a landscape of rocks and stones highlight their features and at the same time provide desirable contrast with other garden plants. Many members of Cactaceae, Crassulaceae, Aizoaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asphodelaceae and Agavaceae belong to this group and are commonly referred to as rock garden plants.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sudan lays close to the east-centre of Africa between Latitudes 4° and 2° and longitude 22° and 28° east. It is the largest country in African continent (8.3 per cent) and Arab world and the ninth largest in the world (1.75) covering 2.59 million square kilometers of twenty six states (El Mustafa, 2005). It shares borders with Egypt, Libya, Chad, Central Africa, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia. It is a criterion for absolute continent in terms of the extent and variety of vast agricultural lands, vast agricultural and pastoral country with rich cultural diversity. It homes about forty million people, seventy five per cent of which inhabit rural areas, speaking over a hundred and thirty indigenous languages and dialects. The country is a gentle sloping land with the exception of Jebel Marra Massif, Red Sea hills, Ingessena hills and the Nuba Mountains (Ahmed et al., 2004).

The Nile and its tributaries traverse it for about 900 km. The rainfall ranges from less than 50 mm in the northern desert to more than 1500 mm in the tropical rain forest in the south.

In general, the soils include aridsols (sand dunes and sandy soils), aridisols and vertisols (clay pockets in the valleys) in the North, vertisols in the central and southern clay plains and oxisols in the south. Variations in rainfall, vegetation and soils resulted in the formation of seven main ecological zones classified as follows: desert (0-75 mm, 28.1 per cent,), semi-desert (75-300 mm, 19 per cent), low rainfall savanna on sand (300-400 mm, 26.6 per cent), low rainfall savanna on clay (400-800 mm, 13.3 per cent), high rainfall savanna (800-1300 mm, 9.5 per cent), Montana vegetation region (800-1000 mm, 0.3 per cent) and flood region (800-1000 mm, 3.2 per cent) which embedded in twenty six states.