eChapters

The scientific community working in the field of crop protection is experiencing an increasing academic and industrial interest in the discovery and development of new bio-insecticides as environmentally friendly pest control tools to be integrated, in combination or rotation, with chemicals in pest management programmes. In this context, Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as a bio-control agent have proven successful and are now commercially mass produced in six of the seven continents to treat pest problem in agriculture, horticulture and forest crops. They actively search for the host, including those in cryptic habitat stages of insect pests in soil environment. They can be considered as good candidates for integrated pest management in ustainable agriculture due to plants and mammals which are not adversely affected and have ease of mass production. We present a general overview on the current state of knowledge of EPN and their mutualistically associated bacteria and their utilization as biological control agent against insect pests in world and India are briefly presented in this chapter.

Endophytic Microorganisms

Endophytes (‘endo’, inside; ‘phyte’, plant) include microorganisms that thrive inside the plant tissues without any obvious adverse effects on the host, and they include mainly bacteria and fungi (Hallmann et al., 1997; Bacon et al., 2002; Hardoim, 2015). Endophytic microorganisms share an intimate association with the host adding essential and functional capabilities. Therefore, plant may be considered as a superorganism composed of an amalgam of both selected symbiont microbiota and host cells (Hardoim, 2015) with the new concept of holobiome, i.e., plant together with the associated microorganisms collectively governing the plant activities (Hardoim et al., 2015; Vandenkoornhuys et al., 2015).

The shift from vegetative to reproductive phase in plants is the result of multiple gene cascades in response to photoperiodic and temperature dependent pathways, gibberellic acid pathway, vernalization pathway and autonomous pathway. The environmental cues are initially detected in the leaves and the mRNA of the flowering signal integrator FT gene, moving to the shoot apical meristem, acts as a long-distance signal for floral meristem identity. At SAM, FT-FD protein complex, based on signals from above said pathways in association with the signals from age-dependent and miRNA pathways, leads to the activation of master regulator gene of flowering AP1. The activation of genes involved in ABCDE model of floral organ differentiation, based on the directions of various cadastral genes lead to the development of floral organs. Thus, the sequential action of floral meristem identity genes, floral organ developmental genes, floral meristem size and organ number genes, floral organ pattern genes and cadastral genes leads to the flower development. This chapter sums up the gene interactions happening in leaf and SAM, leading to the development of a complete flower.

Today it has been understood that yeasts have great potentials as novel probiotics (Nayak, 2011). They have been found to be safe for human consumption in traditional fermented foods (Jakobsen and Narvhus 1996). Yeasts have a great physiological importance inside the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (Czerucka et al., 2007; Gatesoupe, 2007). Jespersen (2003) has mentioned the role of consuming fermented foods and the health benefits attributed with it.Yeasts are known for prevention of table olive (Arroyo lopez et al., 2012). Bonatsau et al. (2015) have shown multi-functional property of yeast as starters.

In spite of the problems with dosage and viability of probiotic strains, a lot more work is required for industry standardization and safety issues. However, it is noted that probiotics have considerable potential against many pathogenic and other diseases. A wide range of clinical trials are still needed to standardize and optimize the conditions. Ongoing basic research will continue to identify and characterize existing strains of probiotics, identifying strain-specific outcomes, determine optimal doses needed for certain results and assess their stability through processing and digestion.

What new research is needed, what trials and how will the ultimate consumer and Industry benefit?
 
In Brazil, the sales of functional foods amounts to US $ 500 million per year representing about 1% of the total sale of the Brazilian food processing industry. According to a report the interests are mainly for dairy products, nutraceuticals and soy-based products. ABIA forecasts a substantial growth of 4.5-5% for this segment of the market (Stanton et al., 2001). In order to exert the health benefits beyond inherent basic nutrition, it is necessary that the activity of the probiotic culture should be maintained at very high levels during the shelf life of the product.

Probiotics are measured in colony forming units (cfu). CFUs are generally measured in the millions or billions per serving. Probiotics are most commonly beneficial bacteria, but can also be friendly fungal or other organisms, that are typically freeze dried to stabilize them in an inert state during storage and production. Then their continued stability and viability, as measured by CFU counts when cultured, is dependent on limiting their exposure to stimulating environmental conditions such as temperature and moisture. Besides refrigeration, this protection can be done by packaging in glass or by adding freshness packets that helps to absorb and reduce moisture in the package.

Antibiotic Resistance and Gene transfer
 
It is important that probiotic strains should be assessed for their phenotypical antibiotic resistance and potential to transfer resistance gene as otherwise they cannot be used in food (BgVV, 2000; Vankerckhoven et al., 2008). It is vital to do research on characterization of acquired resistance mechanisms and transferability of resistance genes and on methods for determining transferability.

Probiotic Fermented food products
 
An individual requires adequate nutrients like proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals to maintain diet. There has been an explosion of the consumer interest in the role of enhancing the health by some specific foods or physiologically active food components, so called functional foods (Hasler, 1998). The concept of functional foods evolved in the year 1990 in Japan.

The lack of mechanistic understanding of probiotic activity is a major drawback for the prediction of safety of probiotic intervention. The complex gut-associated microbial ecosystem and nutritionally related factors are the most important environmental triggers for the development and modification of chronic degenerative diseases including immune and metabolic pathologies. In fact, the interaction between the gut microbial ecosystem and the host is considered to be a critical factor in overall health or disease. Whether probiotics will exert protective, harmful, immune-stimulating or immune-suppressing effects on a host is dependent on the interaction between the microbial signals, the genetic make-up of the host and the effects by the environment. Many studies have revealed that certain probiotic bacteria stimulate immune cell proliferation and activity as evidenced by the production of cytokines and antibodies, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the immune response against pathogens. Ng et al. (2009)

4a. Intestinal Disorders
 
History of health claims
 
According to Bottazzi (1983) it was in 76 BC that the Roman historian Plinius recommended the use of fermented milk for treating gastroenteritis. Metchnikoff claimed that the intake of fermented milk containing Lactobacilli reduces the toxin producing bacteria, thereby increasing the longetivity of the host (Metchnikoff, 1908). Tissier (1905) showed that there was an increase in the Bifidobacteria in breast fed-infants, thus claiming that the administration of Bifidobacteria to infants suffering from diarrhea was very beneficial as they supersede the putrefactive bacteria that causes the disease. Intestinal beneficial microfloras are responsible to resist the disease (Bohnhoff et al., 1954).

LAB constitutes a group of gram positive bacteria. They are nonsporulating, nonrespiring but aerotolerant cocci or rods, which produce lactic acid as one of the main fermentation products of carbohydrates, they do not have cytochromes. They belong to the phylum Firmicuttes, class Bacilli and order Lactobacillaceae. The group includes several genera such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bifidobacterium, Pediococcus, Enterobacter, Corynebacterium, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc etc.

There are potential beneficial medicinal uses of probiotics for which research is limited and only preliminary results are available. Recent research on the molecular biology and genomics of Lactobacillus has focused on the interaction with the immune system, anti-cancer potential, and potential as a biotherapeutic agent in case of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, traveller‘s diarrhoea, pediatric diarrhoea, inflammatory bowel diseases and irritable bowel syndrome (Ljungh et al., 2009). Studies of some probiotics tested in vitro on human epithelial cell lines have shown that they could block the adhesion of shiga toxin producing E. coli (Sherman et al., 2005). These are claimed to be health promoting and/ or disease preventing beyond the basic function of supplying nutrients. Probiotic foods are emerging as an important category of food supplements. Earlier workers have shown the inhibition of diarrhea caused by E.coli using probiotic lactic acid bacteria and yeast (Yan and Polk, 2006). Ratledge et al. (2002) have studied the biochemistry and molecular biology of lipid accumulation in oleaginous microorganisms.

Newer technologies involve fermentation by specific strains of lactic acid bacteria which bring specific fermentation under controlled conditions to a specific fermented product with enhanced organoleptic, nutritional and therapeutic qualities. Today health is of primary concern. It is important to have nutritionally balanced food with good bacteria. For this, probiotic foods top the list. The functional food concept was initially developed in Japan in 1990‘s as there were many side effects of allopathic medicines. A regulatory system has been initiated by the ministry of health and welfare to approve certain foods to improve health. These are now recognized as Foods for specialized health use (FOSHU). According to American dietic association (ADA) these foods are potential healthful food or food ingredients that may provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients. Probiotics are beneficial microorganisms. Probiotic foods as yogurt and sauerkraut are very well known. Fermentation increases the nutrient content and taste with the shelf life.

National Horticulture Board

Commercial floriculture includes production of cut flowers, foliage plants, bedding plants and growing and forcing bulbs and corms of flowering plants for whole and retail sales. The floriculture industry has become highly specialized. Floriculture industry uses many devices to ensure steady supply of flowers and foliage plants irrespective of the season and minimum loss to industry, because of perishable nature of flowers.

Today, floriculture has transformed into a viable agri-business. Estimated area under flower growing in India is about 65,000 ha. More than two-third of this area is devoted for the production of traditional flowers. Production of cut flowers comes to about 500 million numbers. The interesting aspect is that 80% of Indian exports consist of only roses. Other major cut flowers include gladiolus, tuberose, carnation and orchids. With the emerging trends and constant urge for new innovative products, it is high time that Indian floriculture industry shifts towards new or novelty crops (Singh, 2005).

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) commonly called as Rajanigandha produces waxy, white and fragrant flowers on long spikes which are mostly used as cut flowers for making garlands and extracting essential oil. Among the ornamental bulbous plants, it has great economic potential for cut flower trade and essential oil industry. The predominant characteristics of this crop are its lingering, delightful fragrance and excellent keeping quality.

Rose the ‘Queen of flower ’is undoubtedly the world’s most favourite and popular romantic flower. It occupies a prestigious position in cut flower industry and as a garden plant. For thousands of years, the rose has been a symbol of love, adoration, innocence and all other virtues. Countries like England adopted rose as their national flower. In India, rose adorned the gardens of not only the rich and the famous, but also the ashramas of the saints. Rose cultivation initially developed with the distillation of rose for essential oil. Today the importance of rose is in its value as a cut flower. It is one of the most important commercial flowers throughout the world. Roses are also used for preparation of rose water and ‘Gulkhand’ 

Orchids are the royalty among flower crops. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size, shape and colour of flower. They are valued as cut flowers and potted plants and are the most pampered plants. Orchid flowers are famous for the long lasting characteristics and bewitching beauty. No other plant has probably acquired the status of orchids. They have always been considered as mysterious plants.

Marigold is one of the easiest annual flowers to cultivate, having wide adaptability. Flowers are attractive, have good keeping quality with a wide spectrum of colour, shape and size. They produce marketable flowers in a short time and are used widely for religious and social functions as well as for garden display. 

Importance and Uses

 Marigolds are sold as loose flowers, as cut flowers and widely used for various decorations and garland making. They are also excellent landscape plants widely used for bedding purpose, in herbaceous borders and can also be grown in pots. French marigolds, being dwarf, are suitable for hanging baskets, rockeries, edging and window boxes. In fact, marigolds rank next only to jasmine in popularity in South India