eChapters

Theory

Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kg of the material by one degree at constant pressure without a change in state. With food materials, specific heat is a function of different components of a food, moisture content, temperature, and pressure. Specific heat is an important parameter in thermal analysis of food processing and equipment used in heating or cooling of foods. The numerical values of specific heat of the food materials are used in designing food processes and processing equipment. It can be used to calculate the heat load imposed on the refrigeration equipment by the freezing of foods. An apparent specific heat is used in freezing or thawing and in most food processing applications.

The specific heat of a food increases as the product moisture content increases. In unfrozen foods, specific heat capacity is relatively constant with respect to temperature. However, for frozen foods, there is a large decrease in specific heat capacity as the temperature decreases. The specific heat of a material can be determined experimentally by static (adiabatic) calorimetry or differential scanning calorimetry. It can be also predicted quite accurately with the help of a number of empirical equations. The equations are empirical expressions, obtained by fitting experimental data into mathematical models. The mathematical models are based on one or more constituents of the food. Since water is a major component of many foods, a number of models are expressed as a function of water content.

It is a small mass of tissue present on either side of the trachea or windpipe. It is a very important structure that helps in the metabolism of the body.

When the basal metabolism is below normal, a person tends to be slow in his movements. He feels cold more and may have marked dryness of the skin, along with constipation and a tendency to put on weight. His hair is dry, thin, and coarse and the skin appears dry, scaly and thickened. There may be puffiness in the face, especially around the eyes. The tongue is usually large, the pulse is slow and regular, and the patient often complains of vague pains in the back and stiffness in the joints.

Hypothyroidism: It is a condition that results from the insufficient amount of thyroid hormone in the body. The trouble may also develop from pituitary deficiency, but is more likely due to some inborn error of the thyroid gland. The change usually comes gradually and involves the patients personality and also his ability to think.

Hypothyroidism is seen in both sexes, but is more common in women. Most of these are overweight and may complain of heavy flow during menstruation. The heart is often enlarged, and there is high level of cholesterol in the blood stream.

Introdution

Rambutan is called “hairy litchi” as the fruits have red-soft spines on the surface. Fruits are produced in bunches and possess long, thick, soft hairs on their surface and are hence called rambutans after the word ‘rambut’, meaning strands of hair in Malay. The external colour of the fruits is attractive in red and yellow. The white is translucent and sub-arid. Its appearance differs from the litchi by having red and soft spines (hairs) covering the whole surface of the fruit. It has since spread to Southeast Asia, Central America, and Africa. The Rambutan-growing countries are Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India.

The study on the nature and dynamics of farm ecology in relation to occupational migration in certain areas of West Bengal has yielded valuable insights. To enhance future research on this topic, several areas for further investigation can be considered:
1. Gender Dimensions in Occupational Migration: Examining the ways in which gender affects patterns and experiences of occupational migration can yield significant insights into how male and female migrants are differently impacted. By investigating these genderbased differences, we can better understand the distinct challenges and opportunities faced by individuals of different genders as they navigate job transitions across regions and countries. This exploration can reveal crucial factors such as variations in job opportunities, wage disparities, and professional growth prospects, highlighting the unique barriers and advantages experienced by male and female migrants. Ultimately, this understanding can inform more equitable policies and support mechanisms tailored to the specific needs of each gender, fostering a more inclusive approach to occupational migration.
2. Educational Issues for Migrant Families: Investigating the educational challenges encountered by families in transit can reveal profound effects on children’s education and development, making it a particularly important and compelling field of study. This research can shed light on how frequent relocations, disruptions in schooling, and varying educational standards impact children’s learning experiences, academic performance, and overall growth. Understanding these challenges can offer valuable insights into the specific obstacles faced by mobile families, such as inconsistencies in curriculum, interruptions in social and emotional development, and difficulties in accessing educational resources. By highlighting these issues, the study can inform the creation of targeted interventions and support systems aimed at mitigating the adverse effects on children and enhancing their educational outcomes during periods of transition.

1.1 DEFINITIONS
1. Forest
Forest is the homeland of trees. Because man must protect and maintain the life of the forest and because of this;  certain natural
calamities  and  bad  use  of  the  forest  constitute  severe danger to  the forest  and the  environment at large.  In  other to divert from these difficulties, man was bound to cultivate trees. This is silviculture. Silviculture then became a science and art.

As the Veterinary colleges, and Parasitology being an integral part of them, are part of Agricultural universities framed on USA land grant pattern, or separated as Veterinary university imbibing the same philosophy, extension is an integral part of the system. Here, a team of the experts visit the villages to teach the villagers about the basic problems, faced by them in day to day dealing with animals. For explaining a particular problem to the villagers, the experts generally take help of the pamphlets which they have prepared. These pamphlets or extension literature deal the subject with common sense and illustrate the material with line drawings.

Isolation of Protoplasts

Protoplast is the living material of the cell however an isolated protoplast is the cell from which the  cell wall is removed. In plant breeding programme many desirable combination of characters could not be transmitted through the conventional method of genetic manipulation. Higher plants that could lead to the genetic process involving fusion between the subsequent developments of a product to a hybrid plant is known as somatic hybridization. Plant protoplasts can be isolated from cells by two methods:

Data Mining is the process of automatic discovery of novel and understandable models and patterns from large amounts of data. Bioinformatics is the science of storing, analyzing and utilizing information from biological data such as sequences, molecules, gene expressions, and pathways. Development of novel data mining methods will play a fundamental role in understanding these rapidly expanding sources of biological data. Data mining techniques are an automated means of reducing the complexity of data in large bioinformatics databases and of discovering meaningful and useful patterns and relationships in data. Bioinformatics, the application of computational techniques to analyze the information associated with biomolecules on a large-scale, has now firmly established itself as a discipline in molecular biology, and encompasses a wide range of subject areas from structural biology, genomics to gene expression studies. It provides an introduction and overview of the current state of the field. The main principles that underpin bioinformatics analyses look at the Data Mining in Bioinformatics and databases that are commonly used, and finally examine some of the studies that are being conducted, particularly with reference to transcription regulatory systems.

Botany: Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) belonging to the family Palmae is a slender palm tree widely distributed throughout the tropical regions,with a size that can vary between 12 to 30 meters high. Each inflorescence is a branched flower cluster (panicle), located at the base of the leaves. Its flowers, male and female (monoecious), can be white to pale yellow. Fruiting occurs throughout the year, and the fruit is a drupe with a dry fibrous mesocarp popularly known as coconut.

Coconut fruit has an ovoid shape, constituted by 3 angles and 3 germination holes at the end, with a size between 20 and 30 centimeters in diameter. Coconut fruit consists of a brown fibrous bark and a hard shell, booking a seed inside. The central cavity of the fruit has an aqueous or milky liquid called coconut water that is a nutritional mixture aimed for coconut to grow. When the fruit ripens , this fluid accumulates fat and it is called coconut juice or milk. The seed of the coconut palm is the second largest known , after the coco-de-mer (Lodoicea maldivica ), that can reach 40–50 cm in diameter and weigh from 15 to 30 kg. The seed of coconut is hollow inside and it is covered with a white pulp, oily and edible.

Medicinal uses:It is said to have analgesic, antirheumatic, antibacterial , anticancer, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypotensive and immune stimulating properties. Its oil also has numerous cosmetic applications

Different enzymatic methods have been proposed as potential alternatives to rumen inoculum studies to determine dry matter digestibility and protein degradation. However, the type of enzyme used and the procedure adopted differ (Marten and Barnes, 1979). The enzyme methods offer distinct advantage under circumstances of the difficulties in maintaining rumen fistulated animals as a source of rumen inoculum. Since, the enzymes used in these techniques are commercially available enzyme preparations, and are not of rumen microbial origin, the digestibility obtained from these techniques are related to in vivo digestibility by means of mathematical equations. Therefore, equations developed to predict energy content using enzyme techniques differ with the type of feedstuff and type of enzymes used in the technique (Table 5.1.) (Martens and Barnes, 1979). The enzyme methods are popular among the feed compounding industries to evaluate raw materials and compound feeds.

The method used by DeBoever et al. (1986) to determine digestibility of mixed feeds is given below.

Theory

The energy available in food is expressed in unit is called joules or calories. One kilocalorie is equal to 4.184 kilojoules. The kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C. The calorific/ energy value of foods is usually determined using the instrument called bomb calorimeter. It is working based on the principles of calorimetry. Basically, this device burns a food sample and transfers the heat into a known mass of water. It measures the heat produced when the food sample is ignited by an electric spark in the presence of oxygen and platinum which acts as a catalyst. The quantity of food sample to be tested is placed inner part and known volume of water is taken in outer part of the bomb calorimeter. When the food sample is electrically ignited, the surrounding water absorbs the heat produced. The energy value of the food is calculated by measuring the rise in temperature of water.

At the back of the mouth on each side there are two small lymphoid organs known as tonsils. Normally they are about the size of a Lima bean, but they can become very larger if severely infected. The lingual tonsil is located at the back of the tongue close to other tonsils. There are two more lymphoid masses of tissue behind the soft palate known as adenoids. They make protective ring at the back of the nose & throat to keep infection from spreading throughout the body. Most of the germs enter through the mouth, nose and throat.

After becoming an adult the adenoids have largely disappeared. In childhood both the tonsils and adenoids may become very large. It makes swallowing painful and breathing difficult. In childhood large tonsils are common. The main reason of infection is due to certain types of streptococcus germs. Mouth breathing, nasal speech, a chronic cough are caused by the enlarged adenoids. The patient may also have halitosis or bad breath.

For the purpose of passing into the lower gastrointestinal tract and supplying the cow with vital amino acids, dairy bypass protein (UDP – undegraded protein) is a type of animal or plant-based protein that resists breakdown in the rumen. More metabolizable protein is made available by avoiding the rumen, assisting the cow in meeting her needs for amino acids for milk production and its constituent parts.

The ease with which a text can be read is referred to as readability. Complexity, recognizability, legibility, and typography are all possible inclusions. Sentence length, syllable density, and word familiarity are common considerations in readability algorithms.

It refers to how easily a reader can comprehend a written content. The complexity of a text’s vocabulary and syntax, as well as how it is presented, determine how easily it may be understood in natural language (such as typographic aspects like font size, line height, and line length).

Why is readability important?

45.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of sauce from different fruits.

45.2. Theory

Sauces are of thinner consistency as compared to ketchups and contain TSS not less than 15oBrix. Pumpkin, tomato, apple, papaya and plum pulps etc are used successfully for preparation of sauces. Mixed vegetable sauce using pumpkin, tomato, chillies, carrots are sold as continental sauces.

45.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Fruits like Apple, tomato, papaya, pumpkin, plum etc are used for making sauce.

2. Stainless steel knives, de-corers, ladle and utensils for cooking and mixing, glass bottles, sterilization tank, Bhatti/LPG stove etc.

Squash is a type of fruit beverage containing at least 25% fruit juice/pulp, not less than 40% total soluble solids (TSS), about 1-1.5% acid and not exceeding 350ppm sulphur dioxide or 600ppm sodium benzoate. Squash is diluted by adding cold/chilled water before serving (1:3).
Mango, orange, lemon, lime, litchi, guava, pineapple, jamun, plum, apricot, rhododendron petals etc., are used for making squash. Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) is generally used as a preservative, whereas sodium benzoate is used as a preservative in squash made from coloured fruits like plum, jamun, phalsa and rhododendron petals.
Recipe: A generalized recipe for the preparation of squashes from different
fruits as a general guideline is as under:

Experiment - 1

Aim: Isolation of plant genomic DNA through modified CTAB method

Principle: Genomic DNA is extracted from plant material requires cell lysis, inactivation of cellular nucleases and separation of the desired genomic DNA from cellular debris. Ideal lysis method is rigorous enough to disrupt the complex starting material (plant tissue), yet gentle enough to preserve the target nucleic acid. The cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) procedure is sufficient for the extraction and purification of DNA from plants and plant derived food stuff.  This is particularly suitable for the elimination of polysaccharides and polyphenolic compounds otherwise affecting the DNA purity and hence quality.

Khirni (Manilkara hexandra) also known as rayan, is an important multipurpose tree of dry parts of country. It is commercially used as a rootstock for vegetative propagation of sapota in different parts of the country (Singh and Singh, 2012).  Seedlings are found in natural state in the field as well forest areas. Its fruit are nutritious, edible and available during summer season at high price because of its low production. At present, the potential of this fruit crop is unexploited.  There is no improved cultivar for orchard plantation.  It can be planted as wind break on boundary of farm/orchards because of its dense foliage. It is a underexploited fruit tree semi arid to sub tropical regions. Malik et al. (2012) reported that Khirni is a socio- economically important fruit species for tribal peoples.

In 2009, the world celebrated the 200th anniversary of the life and work of Charles Darwin, a transformational scientist who brought about a revolution in our understanding of evolution.  Evolution through natural selection among living organisms leading to the survival of the fittest was a concept which was alien to Christian thought in Darwin’s time, as faith was strong in the divine creation of the living forms of our planet.  Evolution of higher forms of life, including human beings, from fish and other forms of living organisms was an accepted view in ancient Indian thought, as exemplified by the ten forms of manifestation on earth of the Hindu god Vishnu.

“Variety is the spice of life” is a common saying.  Variation is a must for selection to occur.  Today, we are confronted with the prospect of human-induced changes in climate, leading to adverse variations in temperature, precipitation, flood and sea level.  We will have to be prepared for facing the consequences of drought, flood and coastal storms more frequently.