eChapters

4.1 Determination of Specific Surface Area of Soil

Specific surface area of a soil is defined as surface area per unit weight of soil and is expressed as m² g^-1. The specific surface of soil greatly influences the physical and chemical properties such as retention of water at high suction, swelling, plasticity, soil strength, cation exchange capacity and availability of nutrients. The basic principle of determination of specific surface is based on the amount of gas or polar liquid required to form a monomolecular layer on the soild. Knowledge of molecular size (diameter) and the mass of the adsorbate enables one to calculate specific surface of the adsorbent.

Principle

Dyal and Hendricks (1950) introduced a method for estimating specific area based upon the adsorption of ethylene glycol (EG) to form a monomolecular layer over the entire soil surface. The method involves adding EG to pretreated soil or clay sample and evaporating the excess EG in an evacuated system. The quantity of EG retained at the moment the evaporating rate decreases is proportional to the surface area. Later on Carter et al. (1965) suggested the use of ethylene glycol monoethyl ether (EGME) having high vapour pressure at room temperature than EG for determining surface area of the layer silicate minerals and soils.

12.1 Introduction

Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess water from the farmland for the purpose of providing favorable soil air environment for plant growth. Removal of water may take place form the surface or below the surface of the land. The practice of lowering ground water table below the root zone depth to improve the plant growth or to reduce the accumulation of salts in soil is also called as drainage

Drainage system is broadly classified as surface & subsurface drainage. Removal of excess water over the land surface is known as surface drainage & that of removing water below the surface is known as subsurface drainage. The flow of water in the form of evaporation or evapotranspiration also play important role in improving drainage situation. It gives the idea of the time required to get the wetland workable though it is not called a type of drainage as because this is very slow process & cannot be controlled by the human activities. However, using of certain tree plants e.g., Eucalyptus, Poplar, Casurina or similar species in wet fields, which transpires at high rate and improves the drainage problem by lowering the shallow water table is the new idea known as bio-drainage.

11. 1 Introduction

Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess water from the farmland for the purpose of providing favorable soil air environment for plant growth. Removal of water may take place form the surface or below the surface of the land. The practice of lowering ground water table below the root zone depth to improve the plant growth or to reduce the accumulation of salts in soil is also called as drainage.

Drainage system is broadly classified as surface and subsurface drainage. Removal of excess water over the land surface is known as surface drainage and that of removing water below the surface is known as subsurface drainage. The flow of water in the form of evaporation or evapotranspiration also play important role in improving drainage situation. It gives the idea of the time required to get the wetland workable though it is not called a type of drainage as because this is very slow process and cannot be controlled by the human activities. However, using of certain tree plants e. g. , Eucalytus, Poplar, Casurina or similar species in wet fields, which transpires at high rate and improves the drainage problem by lowering the shallow water table is the new idea known as bio-drainage.

12.1 Introduction

Among a variety of optical evanescent wave techniques, spectroscopies based on the resonant excitation of surface plasmons have matured into a widely accepted surface analytical method used in different fields. Liedberg et al¹ were the first who demonstrated the exploitation of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for chemical sensing. Since then the SPR sensing principle has received much attention. In this chapter we shall first describe the principle of this technique and then few sensors that have utilized this phenomenon.

Abstract

The state of Tamil Nadu has a low easterly gradient slope and there are number of rivers, big and small originate from the west flow towards east south easterly and confluence the Bay of Bengal. These were grouped into seventeen major and minor river basins, the Cauvery being the largest basin and the river is also a near perennial river. These river basins receive rainfall both from the southwest and northeast monsoons. The state has over 40,000 surface water bodies and number of major dams and reservoirs. Even then, since the rainfall of the north east monsoon, the major source of water source to these basins, occurs in short span of few days with high rainfall, neither adequate storage is there to store them nor the recharge possibility is available, thus all leading to flooding and wastage. The 40,000 and odd water bodies are heavily silted and polluted too. The paper provides an over view of all these, basin wise, and in addition, strongly advocates intra state river linkage and improvised irrigation management as the best option to save the state from its water deficiency.

5.1 INTRODUCTION: THE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF COLLOIDAL SUSPENSIONS

This chapter is concerned with understanding the factors which influence the partition of ions between solid surfaces and aqueous solutions. There are many aspects of soil science such as some of those concerned with soil formation, transfer of nutrient ions from soil particles to plant roots, soil pollutant interaction and soil management which are critically dependent on what happens in the space of the order of 1 nm wide between solid and equilibrium solution. A broad survey of the development of ideas on soil-electrolyte interaction shows that there have been two main avenues of approach. One views the soil as an electrically charged surface with its adsorbed hydrated ions as one phase in equilibrium with solution, which is seen as the second phase. The other approach focuses on the electrical double layer extending from the charged solid surface out into the solution. In the latter approach the solid surface, the outer equilibrium solution and the make up of the transition zone between these two phases must all be involved in any detailed consideration of the micro structure of the system. For a full and proper understanding of soil-electrolyte interaction anything less than a detailed analysis of the micro-structure is likely to be inadequate and in this it must be remembered that the interaction between electrical double layers which overlap with one another is likely to be important.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

It has been suggested that the relationship of surface chemistry to soil science is similar to that of biochemistry to biology. Certainly the fact that surfaces of soil particles are extensive and reactive leads to a dominance of surface chemistry in soil behaviour, but it is not an exclusive relationship, because many precipitation reactions, oxidation and reduction processes, and biological reactions take place more or less independently of the surface processes. Nevertheless it is difficult to understand soil properties fully without an appreciation of the nature and extent of the surfaces of the soil constituents, and this chapter is devoted to a discussion of this topic.

Good cataract outcome depends on pre-operative selection of patients, the skills and knowledge of the eye surgeon, the surgical technique, the surgical facilities and environment, the post-operative care and the optical correction provided.

Preoperative Procedures

Owners are advised to instill antibiotic eye drop such as Moxifloxacin @ two drops b.i.d. for 7 days and eye drop tropicamide @ two drops b.i.d. for 2 days before the cataract surgery for proper dilation of pupil. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory eye drops such as Flubriprofenis started t.i.d on the day before surgery. Further, tropicamide (1%) used as mydriatic agent is instilled 30 minutes before operation at the rate of two drops every 5 minutes in the eye to be operated. 0.5% povidone iodine drops are instilled on cornea prior to surgery.

There are some methods to control male reproductive behaviour for better breeding and managemental practices i.e. Vasectomy and Caudal epididymectomy, Penile surgeries, and castration etc. • Surgical and non surgical interventions in the male reproductive system are carried out for: • To make teaser bull • To make bull sterile • To prevent the transmission of venereal diseases • Population control or Breeding management • To rectify any ailment or deformity Teaser Bull • A male animal whose capability of spermatogenesis as well as libido is maintained but it is not able to impregnate a female. • For the preparation of teaser bull or Gomer bull, Male animal should be selected well before the start of breeding season. Bull should be young vigorous and fertile. It should be of moderate adult size with mild temperament. Heavy and large sized bull is tough to handle, needs more time for surgery, has chances of more hemorrhage, and may have more post surgical complications.

Surgery stands as first choice for the treatment of canine mammary tumours. The simplest surgical procedure in the mammary gland should be performed (MacEwen, 1989) in the absence of metastatic disease and inflammatory carcinoma. Nevertheless the controversy for performing simple or radical technique still goes unabated, as the published data are to clear to prove the practical value of radical surgery compared to simple mastectomy. Brodey et al. (1983) is reported that six categories of surgical excision of mammary tumours can be performed.

Genus : Eugenia 
Species : uniflora  L.
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 22

Eugenia uniflora, L. Is another important genera in family Myrtaceae which produces edible fruit. The fruit is known by several names like Pitanga, Surinam cherry, Cayenne cherry and Florida cherry. The word pitanga is derived from Tupi meaning ‘piter’ and ‘anga’, scent or odour. From its native home in Brazil the fruit was introduced in India at an early time probably by the Portuguese but is not cultivated commercially. The shiny deep green foliage is very attractive and the crushed leaves results in a pungent but agreeable odour which drives away the flies.

Introduction

Different dairy development programmes are working in various parts of the country. But the dairy development programmes which are confined only to the production activities can not give the best results unless they are supported by the marketing facilities and other infrastructure.

Need for Estimation of Milk Production Potential

Estimation about the milk production potential of any region is required for establishing milk processing plant and helps in making the planning and policy for developing marketing infrastructure in that area. In fact the marketed surplus depends on the marketing facility available in the region. If there are marketing facilities in the area like good cooperative societies are operating in the region, and good prices are offered to the milk producers which covers their cost of production and margins, the marketed surplus is bound to be higher than that of the regions where marketing facilities are not existing.

Three fundamental aspects—slope, stream order, and land use/land cover (LULC)—are critical in understanding landscape dynamics. These factors shape the physical and hydrological characteristics of an area and significantly impact ecological functions, land development planning, and conservation initiatives. Reliable analysis and detailed mapping of these parameters are crucial for the responsible management of land and water resources.
Operation and maintenance of soil conservation structures encompass a variety of activities designed to reduce soil erosion, sustain soil quality, and enhance water absorption. Structures such as terraces, check dams, and gully plugs must be consistently monitored and managed to ensure optimal performance over time. Essential tasks include frequent assessments, clearing of blockages or sediment build-up, and timely repairs to safeguard their structural integrity and operational efficiency.
Soil conservation refers to a collection of methods aimed at preserving soil from erosion and deterioration. At its core, soil conservation recognizes the soil as a living, dynamic system. One of its primary principles is the regular return of organic material to the soil, supporting its biological activity and overall health. Soil conservation can be compared to preventive maintenance on a car. Just like changing the oil, replacing filters, and inspecting spark plugs helps avoid costly engine damage, taking proactive steps to conserve soil now ensures its long-term productivity and health. Preventive measures in soil conservation help safeguard this essential resource for future use.
Soil conservation is a “combination” of practices used to protect the soil from degradation. At its core, it involves recognizing soil as a vibrant, living ecosystem.
The countless organisms residing in the soil contribute significantly to its fertility and structure. These organisms decompose organic materials, release essential nutrients, and create pathways for air and water movement—crucial for soil health

3.1 Introduction

There is now latest national thinking going on to conserve the known sources of energy such as firewood, cow dung, agricultural waste, kerosene, oil etc. i.e. by limiting their conventional uses and to propagate the use of non conventional energy especially in the rural area. The large scale indiscriminate use of non commercial fuels fully in the rural areas are not only providing to be inefficient but also inadequate to cope with the growing rural energy demand caused by growing population and growing consciousness among rural people for a better way of life. Planned input of energy are, therefore urgently require to protect the environment and to cope with raising rural energy demand. In order to assess the widening gap between the supply and demand of commercial energy and indiscriminate use of non commercial fuels in rural areas, there is a need for various types of statistical or quantified information to be collected and analyzed in an objective manner and presented suitability so as to serve as a sound basis for taking policy decision to make an optimum utilization of commercial energy in a balanced manner. This will require conducting of survey in areas to be covered.

The statistical data may be collected by complete enumeration or by a sample survey. The earlier method is very cumbersome, time consuming, cost ineffective and requires an intensive development of manpower, if domains of study is quite large. Complete enumeration and sample surveys presuppose the existence of a certain minimum of facilities such as funds, professional personnel for planning the survey methodology and supervision of field operations, sufficiently qualified enumerators, sampling frames, machine tabulation equipment, transport and communication facilities etc. These facilities or combinations there of do not always exist to the extent needed for a complete enumeration survey. As such, sample survey is preferred to complete enumeration for ethic type of studies giving due importance to sampling error.

In the integrated energy planning, there is an objective to find out the present consumption pattern of energy for different end uses, shortages being experienced and people’s reaction to using alternate sources of energy is also enumerated.

The survey methods determine – incident, distribution and the interrelation among sociological variable and psychological variable. The sociological variable s consists of age, education, income and attitude, behavior, motivation, belief and knowledge about the problem.

A survey of farming systems and agricultural-based livelihood enterprises is a research method used to gather information about the different ways farmers organize their agricultural activities and how these activities contribute to their livelihoods. It aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the diverse farming practices, resource management strategies, and income-generating activities within a specific region or community.
Objectives
Identify and classify farming systems: This involves understanding the different types of farming practices prevalent in the area, such as crop-livestock systems, mixed farming, specialized cropping, agroforestry, etc. Classification may be based on factors like scale, technology used, crops grown, livestock raised, and integration with other enterprises. Assess resource use and management: This includes examining how farmers utilize natural resources like land, water, soil, and biodiversity. It also covers xmanagement practices like irrigation, fertilization, pest control, and soil conservation.
Analyze livelihood strategies: The survey investigates how agriculture contributes to the overall livelihoods of farming households. This includes income from crop and livestock production, as well as off-farm income sources. Evaluate the economic viability of agricultural enterprises: This involves assessing the profitability and sustainability of different farming activities. It may include analyzing production costs, market access, and value addition opportunities.

Not all the scientific problems demand the detection and establishment of causal relationship among natural phenomenon. Many of the social research problems seek to study the status quo rather than the relation between two or more natural phenomenon. Few of the impact assessment studies (which are kind of causal relationship studies to an extent) also demand for knowing the status quo before and after implementation of interventions. Many other studies demand for benchmark assessment to make policy decisions. Under such circumstances, survey research is a useful research method.

Introduction

Survey sampling is a method of drawing inference about the characteristics of a population by securing a sample. Sample survey techniques are extensively used by government bodies throughout the world and researchers for assessing, for planning and for projection future economy.In a sample survey, the final step of the analysis and drawing inferences from a sample to a population is a very vital and fascinating issue. Since the results of the survey are the basis for policy making, it is the most essential part of the sample survey and should be handled carefully.The object of designing a sample survey is to minimize the error in the final estimates. Any survey involving data collection and analysis of the data is subject to a variety of errors. The errors may be classified into two groups viz., (i) non-sampling errors (ii) sampling errors.

Sampling: Disease assessment activity within plots and fields.
Survey: To move over a specific place for some observation.
Surveillance: Repeated or sequential survey of some place/ locality for some observation to ascertain the changes /fluctuations in the objects of study.

Q. 1 Fore sight is also known as
(A) Positive sight            (B) Minus sight
(C) Intermediate sight     (D) Vertical sight